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DOE OSTI2023

Supply Chain Cybersecurity Recommendations for Solar Photovoltaics

Solar photovoltaic (PV) cybersecurity is a growing field of research. As deployments of solar PV has increased, cyber risk has also increased. However, utility solar PV installations are not required to comply with North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) unless they meet a minimum generation threshold of 75 Megawatts (MW). Individual residential scale solar PV deployments will not meet that generation threshold and are therefore excluded from NERC CIP requirements. With most solar installations below 75MW, solar PV has been deployed with minimal oversight and highly variable cybersecurity maturity. The resources that make up the digital supply chain can include software, code, data, as well as other digital components. However as clean energy technology advances, cybersecurity threats and vulnerabilities continue to evolve and grow in sophistication. Solar PV faces a unique challenge in which it can be deployed in residential buildings and purchased by a consumer directly. This makes the supply chain of PV a unique challenge, where responsible parties for cybersecurity vary widely depending on the type of solar PV being deployed. Supply chain cybersecurity for solar PV represents a critical area for ensuring safe operations as the U.S. moves towards a clean energy future.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

AGR-5/6/7 Irradiation Disassembly and Metrology First Look

The Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) Fuel Development and Qualification Program was established to perform research and development on tristructural isotropic (TRISO)-coated particle fuel to support deployment of high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs), which are graphite-moderated nuclear reactors cooled with helium. This work continues as part of the Advanced Reactor Technologies (ART) TRISO Fuel Program. The overarching program goal is to provide a baseline fuel qualification data set to support licensing, deployment, and operation of HTGRs in the United States. To achieve these goals, the program includes fuel fabrication, irradiations of TRISO fuels and high-temperature materials (e.g., graphite), safety testing and post-irradiation examination (PIE), fuel performance modeling, and fission product transport and source term determination. The ART AGR program has conducted four distinct fuel irradiation experiments in the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) at Idaho National Laboratory (INL). The first of these irradiation tests, designated AGR-1, began in ATR in December of 2006 and ended in November 2009. This experiment was primarily to act as a shakedown test of the multi-capsule test train design and to provide early data on fuel performance that would be used in fuel fabrication process development. AGR-1 fuel kernels were produced on an engineering scale, but the TRISO coatings and cylindrical fuel compacts were fabricated on a laboratory scale. The AGR-1 PIE was completed and the final report was published in 2015. The second irradiation test, AGR-2, started in ATR in June 2010 and ended in October 2013. The AGR-2 irradiation test was designed to provide fuel performance data for coated particles fabricated on an engineering-scale pilot line using a coater with an internal chamber diameter of 150 mm (6 in.). The final PIE report was published in 2021. AGR-3/4, a single irradiation that combined what were originally conceived as the third and fourth tests, was to support the refinement of fission product transport models and to assess the effects of sweep gas impurities on fuel performance and fission product transport. PIE of the AGR-3/4 experiment is still in progress as of this writing. The subject of this report is AGR-5/6/7, the final qualification test of AGR TRISO fuel made entirely at the engineering scale.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Phase 1 NuScale SMR FOAK Nuclear Demonstration Readiness Project (Final Scientific/Technical Report)

The overarching objective of the Phase 1 NuScale SMR First-of-a-Kind (FOAK) Nuclear Demonstration Readiness Project was to enhance competitiveness of the U.S. nuclear industry by enabling timely deployment of the NuScale small modular reactor (SMR). The scope of this Phase 1 project continued to advance the licensing and design maturity, particularly in those areas related to supporting customer readiness, supply chain integration, cost competitiveness, and cost confidence. This investment provided by the Government has accelerated development of these designs and technologies so that the existing domestic fleet of nuclear power plants remains viable and the most mature in the nuclear industry. The intent is to have the new, advanced U.S. designs be deployed as early 2026, and be globally competitive. As a part of the First-of-a-Kind Nuclear Demonstration Readiness Project, NuScale has been developing an advanced reactor design, leading the path for other development projects or complex technology advancements for existing plants that have significant technical and licensing risk. The NuScale Power team (NuScale) is advancing licensing, engineering, supply chain development, testing, and other required activities to enhance the innovation and competitiveness of the U.S. nuclear industry by enabling timely deployment of the NuScale SMR. Specifically, NuScale is performing the following activities in Phase 1. Fully supporting the NRC review of the NuScale DCA to ensure approval of a final safety evaluation report by the end of 2020. Improving plant cost confidence and cost competitiveness through design and supply chain advancement, incorporation of constructability best practices, and margin recovery to increase plant power output. Accelerating design maturity, technology development, and operational program readiness to support a customer commitment for plant deployment. The Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), a unit of the Office of Science, fulfills agency-wide responsibilities to collect, preserve, and disseminate both unclassified and classified scientific and technical information (STI) emanating from DOE-funded research and development (R&D) activities at DOE national laboratories and facilities and at universities and other institutions nationwide. This scientific and technical report provides summaries of the analyses and research that was performed by NuScale under this project that achieves the objective of disseminating information to the nuclear industry to ensure the innovations realized are shared for the benefit of the industry at large.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

NASA NTRS2009

Continuous Lidar Monitoring of Polar Stratospheric Clouds at the South Pole

Polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) play a primary role in the formation of annual ozone holes over Antarctica during the austral sunrise. Meridional temperature gradients in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere, caused by strong radiative cooling, induce a broad dynamic vortex centered near the South Pole that decouples and insulates the winter polar airmass. PSC nucleate and grow as vortex temperatures gradually fall below equilibrium saturation and frost points for ambient sulfate, nitrate, and water vapor concentrations (generally below 197 K). Cloud surfaces promote heterogeneous reactions that convert stable chlorine and bromine-based molecules into photochemically active ones. As spring nears, and the sun reappears and rises, photolysis decomposes these partitioned compounds into individual halogen atoms that react with and catalytically destroy thousands of ozone molecules before they are stochastically neutralized. Despite a generic understanding of the ozone hole paradigm, many key components of the system, such as cloud occurrence, phase, and composition; particle growth mechanisms; and denitrification of the lower stratosphere have yet to be fully resolved. Satellite-based observations have dramatically improved the ability to detect PSC and quantify seasonal polar chemical partitioning. However, coverage directly over the Antarctic plateau is limited by polar-orbiting tracks that rarely exceed 80 degrees S. In December 1999, a NASA Micropulse Lidar Network instrument (MPLNET) was first deployed to the NOAA Earth Systems Research Laboratory (ESRL) Atmospheric Research Observatory at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station for continuous cloud and aerosol profiling. MPLNET instruments are eye-safe, capable of full-time autonomous operation, and suitably rugged and compact to withstand long-term remote deployment. With only brief interruptions during the winters of 2001 and 2002, a nearly continuous data archive exists to the present.

OZONE DESTRUCTION↗

DOE OSTI2023

Photovoltaic Deployment Scenarios toward Global Decarbonization: Role of Disruptive Technologies

To totally decarbonize global electrical systems using photovoltaics (PVs) in the 2050–2060 decade, the world would need to install 63.4 TW of PV. This article models and explores how a PV manufacturing ramp‐up trajectory toward this goal can be achieved while assuming that investors continue to make financially rational decisions avoiding stranded production assets and therefore protecting their return on investment. The model effectively exploits experience curve benefits in both the scaling of the manufacturing process and continued progress in product design technologies. The scale‐up challenge is amplified because trajectories that achieve this goal require an unprecedented ramp‐up of production capacity over just two decades, followed by relatively modest demand to maintain the installed base and support continued population growth. It is demonstrated that sustainable ramp‐up of manufacturing is indeed possible and shown that the deployment of the requisite manufacturing capacity can be accelerated and accomplished at lower total capital cost by the introduction of disruptive technologies that have lower capital intensity, embedded energy, or higher efficiency.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2018

Field Testing of Telemetry for Demand Response Control of Small Loads

The electricity system in California, from generation through loads, must be prepared for high renewable penetration and increased electrification of end uses while providing increased resilience and lower operating cost. California has an aggressive renewable portfolio standard that is complemented by world-leading greenhouse gas goals. The goal of this project was to evaluate methods of enabling fast demand response (DR) signaling to small loads for low-cost site enablement. We used OpenADR 2.0 to meet telemetry requirements for providing ancillary services, and we used a variety of low-cost devices coupled with open-source software to enable an end-to-end fast DR. The devices, architecture, implementation, and testing of the system is discussed in this report. We demonstrate that the emerging Internet of Things (IoT) and Smart Home movements provide an opportunity for diverse small loads to provide fast, low-cost demand response. We used Internet-connected lights, thermostats, load interruption devices, and water heaters to demonstrate an ecosystem of controllable devices. The system demonstrated is capable of providing fast load shed for between 20 dollars and $300 per kilowatt (kW) of available load. The wide range results from some loads may have very low cost but also very little shed capability (a 10 watt [W] LED light can only shed a maximum of 10 W) while some loads (e.g., water heaters or air conditioners) can shed several kilowatts but have a higher initial cost. These costs, however, compare well with other fast demand response costs, with typically are over $100/kilowatt of shed. We contend these loads are even more attractive than their price suggests because many of them will be installed for energy efficiency or non-energy benefits (e.g., improved lighting quality or controllability), and the ability to use them for fast DR is a secondary benefit. Therefore the cost of enabling them for DR may approach zero if a software-only solution can be deployed to enable fast DR after devices are installed for other reasons. We recommend that the DR research community continue to engage with the IoT community to encourage the use of documented and open development interfaces. A library of device drivers and machine-readable interface specifications would significantly reduce the burden on users or system integrators for deploying systems in large numbers of buildings in California.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

NASA NTRS1974

Flight tests of Viking parachute system in three Mach number regimes. 2: Parachute test results

Tests of the Viking 16.15-meter nominal-diameter disk-gap-band parachute were conducted at Mach number and dynamic pressure conditions which bracketed the range postulated for the Viking '75 mission to Mars. Parachutes were deployed at supersonic, transonic, and subsonic speeds behind a simulated Viking entry capsule. All parachutes successfully deployed, inflated, and exhibited sufficient drag and stability for mission requirements. Basic parachute data including loads, drag coefficients, pull-off angles, and canopy area ratios are presented. Trajectory reconstruction and onboard camera data methods were combined to yield continuous histories of both parachute and test-vehicle angular motions which are presented for the period from parachute deployment through steady inflation.

Bendura, R. J.↗

DOE OSTI2026

Towards continual machine learning for particle accelerators

This talk covers our work on errant beam prognostics at the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS), focusing on the end-to-end process from data collection to the development and deployment of predictive models in specific. A short overview of AIML work done for accelerators and current trends will be presented. We will walk through key steps involved in creating robust Machine Learning (ML) models, including model training, validation, and deployment in an operational setting. In addition to presenting our technical approach, we will share valuable lessons learned, emphasizing the importance of infrastructure to support the continuous adaptation of models to evolving data and system behaviors. This talk will provide insights into the challenges and solutions involved in applying ML to real-world operational environments, with a particular focus on managing data drift and changes in accelerator setup while ensuring model resilience over time.

Accelerator Physics↗

DOE OSTI2017

Cost Analysis of Wind and Uranium from Seawater Acquisition symbiotic Infrastructure using Shell Enclosures

At current consumption rates, global conventional reserves of uranium, estimated to be 7.6 million tonnes, could be depleted in a little over a century. As these reserves decrease, extraction of uranium is expected to shift to lower quality sites, resulting in higher extraction costs and greater environmental impact. Fortunately, the ocean contains approximately 4.5 billion tonnes of uranium, as uranyl ions at low concentrations of about 3 ppb. Uranium from seawater is a widely studied topic due to the long term security it can assure the nuclear fuel cycle. Additionally, harvesting uranium from seawater could reduce some of the environmental impacts associated with the recovery of land-based uranium. Seawater uranium is meant to create a cost ceiling that provides economic stability and potential savings, not to act as a direct competitor to terrestrial uranium. A recent review of uranium recovery technologies by found uranium adsorption by chelating polymers to be the most promising in terms of adsorbent capacity, environmental footprint, and cost. In this technology, chelating polymers are deployed in seawater and remain submerged until the amount of captured uranium approaches the adsorption capacity. Then, an elution bath is used to strip metal ions, such as uranium, off the adsorbent polymer. A polymer may be immersed in a number of elution baths before it is regenerated by an alkali wash to free its functional groups, allowing for the reuse of the polymer. The output from the elution process undergoes purification and precipitation typical for mined uranium to produce yellowcake. Offshore systems for the extraction of uranium from seawater have been developed since the early 2000's. The system currently studied by a nationwide consortium of national laboratory and university partners utilizes continuous adsorbent polyethylene fibers that are braided around a porous polypropylene float which can be made into long lengths. However, because this deployment scheme requires the adsorbent be brought to a mother-ship for the elution process and redeployed afterward, it has significant practical and economic deployment challenges. Detailed economic analysis have identified the adsorbent production and mooring as the most expensive components of the recovery process. Based on these results, proposed an alternative deployment method that is attached to an offshore wind turbine and continuously takes the adsorbent, that is fabricated into a belt, from the ocean through an elution process and before submerging it back into the sea. However, it has been found that adsorbents with high tensile strength and durability often have very low uranium adsorption properties. Hence, the Wind and Uranium from Seawater Acquisition symbiotic Infrastructure (WUSABI) previously studied, which requires the adsorbent into a belt held in tension, could face difficulties in an ocean environment. Instead, the design, further referred to in this paper as WUSABI-Koosh, utilized a two-part system to decouple the mechanical and chemical needs of an adsorbent for seawater harvesting of uranium. In these designs, the uranium adsorbent material with high adsorbent capacity is enclosed in a hard permeable outer shell with sufficient mechanical strength and durability for use in an offshore environment and chemical resilience against elution treatments. The integration of the design of a uranium harvesting system into an offshore wind turbine tower is pursued because the development of offshore wind or uranium harvesting by themselves bears a high capital cost for the structures, but if the mooring function can be shared, the overall cost for each will be lower. Furthermore, initial design analysis and prototyping of these symbiotic systems has proven they are technically feasible. This paper presents preliminary cost analysis for comparison to uranium recovery via alternative deployment schemes.

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗

NASA NTRS1979

Mission summary: Halley flyby/Tempel-2 rendezvous

A unique dual-comet flight opportunity exists in mid-1985 which includes flyby of the large and active comet Halley en route to rendezvous with second comet, Tempel-2. This mission will utilize ion propulsion at a modest performance level, based on proven technology. The Project is planned for FY81 start. Launch occurs in July 1985 via the Shuttle/IUS twin stage. Following IUS injection, the ion propulsion stage provides continuous thrust virtually throughout the 3-year flight until the Tempel-2 rendezvous in 1988. En route, a probe is deployed for encounter with Halley about 4 months after launch at a point 73 days before its perihelion. Rendezvous with Tempel-2 occurs about 60 days before the comet's perihelion during the summer of 1988 and continues for about 1 year. Earth will be in favorable relative positions for observing both the flyby and the rendezvous.

Atkins, K.↗

DOE OSTI2021

Profiling the Quito basin (Ecuador) using seismic ambient noise

SUMMARY Quito, the capital of Ecuador, with more than 2.5 M inhabitants, is exposed to a high seismic hazard due to its proximity to the Pacific subduction zone and active crustal faults, both capable of generating significant earthquakes. Furthermore, the city is located in an intermontane piggy-back basin prone to seismic wave amplification. To understand the basin’s seismic response and characterize its geological structure, 20 broad and medium frequency band seismic stations were deployed in Quito’s urban area between May 2016 and July 2018 that continuously recorded ambient seismic noise. We first compute horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios to determine the resonant frequency distribution in the entire basin. Secondly, we cross-correlate seismic stations operating simultaneously to retrieve interstations surface-wave Green’s functions in the frequency range of 0.1–2 Hz. We find that Love waves travelling in the basin’s longitudinal direction (NNE–SSW) show much clearer correlograms than those from Rayleigh waves. We then compute Love wave phase-velocity dispersion curves and invert them in conjunction with the HVSR curves to obtain shear-wave velocity profiles throughout the city. The inversions highlight a clear difference in the basin’s structure between its northern and southern parts. In the centre and northern areas, the estimated basin depth and mean shear-wave velocity are about 200 m and 1800 ms−1, respectively, showing resonance frequency values between 0.6 and 0.7 Hz. On the contrary, the basement’s depth and shear-wave velocity in the southern part are about 900 m and 2500 ms−1, having a low resonance frequency value of around 0.3 Hz. This difference in structure between the centre-north and the south of the basin explains the spatial distribution of low-frequency seismic amplifications observed during the Mw 7.8 Pedernales earthquake in April 2016 in Quito.

Pacheco, D. (ORCID:0000000282355096)↗

DOE OSTI2016

On the Path to SunShot - Utility Regulatory Business Model Reforms forAddressing the Financial Impacts of Distributed Solar on Utilities

Net-energy metering (NEM) with volumetric retail electricity pricing has enabled rapid proliferation of distributed photovoltaics (DPV) in the United States. However, this transformation is raising concerns about the potential for higher electricity rates and cost-shifting to non-solar customers, reduced utility shareholder profitability, reduced utility earnings opportunities, and inefficient resource allocation. Although DPV deployment in most utility territories remains too low to produce significant impacts, these concerns have motivated real and proposed reforms to utility regulatory and business models, with profound implications for future DPV deployment. This report explores the challenges and opportunities associated with such reforms in the context of the U.S. Department of Energy’s SunShot Initiative. As such, the report focuses on a subset of a broader range of reforms underway in the electric utility sector. Drawing on original analysis and existing literature, we analyze the significance of DPV’s financial impacts on utilities and non-solar ratepayers under current NEM rules and rate designs, the projected effects of proposed NEM and rate reforms on DPV deployment, and alternative reforms that could address utility and ratepayer concerns while supporting continued DPV growth. We categorize reforms into one or more of four conceptual strategies. Understanding how specific reforms map onto these general strategies can help decision makers identify and prioritize options for addressing specific DPV concerns that balance stakeholder interests.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2016

AGR-1 Compact 5-3-1 Post-Irradiation Examination Results

The Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) Fuel Development and Qualification Program was established to perform the requisite research and development on tristructural isotropic (TRISO) coated particle fuel to support deployment of a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR). The work continues as part of the Advanced Reactor Technologies (ART) TRISO Fuel program. The overarching program goal is to provide a baseline fuel qualification data set to support licensing and operation of an HTGR. To achieve these goals, the program includes the elements of fuel fabrication, irradiation, post-irradiation examination (PIE) and safety testing, fuel performance, and fission product transport (INL 2015). A series of fuel irradiation experiments is being planned and conducted in the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) at Idaho National Laboratory (INL). These experiments will provide data on fuel performance under irradiation, support fuel process development, qualify the fuel for normal operating conditions, provide irradiated fuel for safety testing, and support the development of fuel performance and fission product transport models. The first of these irradiation tests, designated AGR-1, began in the ATR in December 2006 and ended in November 2009. This experiment was conducted primarily to act as a shakedown test of the multicapsule test train design and provide early data on fuel performance for use in fuel fabrication process development. It also provided samples for post-irradiation safety testing, where fission product retention of the fuel at high temperatures will be experimentally measured. The capsule design and details of the AGR-1 experiment have been presented previously.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2016

AGR-1 Compact 1-3-1 Post-Irradiation Examination Results

The Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) Fuel Development and Qualification Program was established to perform the requisite research and development on tristructural isotropic (TRISO) coated particle fuel to support deployment of a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR). The work continues as part of the Advanced Reactor Technologies (ART) TRISO Fuel program. The overarching program goal is to provide a baseline fuel qualification data set to support licensing and operation of an HTGR. To achieve these goals, the program includes the elements of fuel fabrication, irradiation, post-irradiation examination (PIE) and safety testing, fuel performance modeling, and fission product transport (INL 2015). A series of fuel irradiation experiments is being planned and conducted in the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) at Idaho National Laboratory (INL). These experiments will provide data on fuel performance under irradiation, support fuel process development, qualify the fuel for normal operating conditions, provide irradiated fuel for safety testing, and support the development of fuel performance and fission product transport models. The first of these irradiation tests, designated AGR-1, began in the ATR in December 2006 and ended in November 2009. This experiment was conducted primarily to act as a shakedown test of the multicapsule test train design and provide early data on fuel performance for use in fuel fabrication process development. It also provided samples for post-irradiation safety testing, where fission product retention of the fuel at high temperatures will be experimentally measured. The capsule design and details of the AGR-1 experiment have been presented previously (Grover, Petti, and Maki 2010, Maki 2009).

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2017

Radial Deconsolidation of Leach-Burn-Leach of AGR-3/4 Compacts 3-3, 12-1, and 12-3

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2018

Heating Tests of AGR-2 Compact 6-4-1 Loose Kernels and AGR-3/4 Compacts 3-2 and 10-4

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2018

NoiseSpotter Feedback

NoiseSpotter is currently designed for a 2-week deployment. This timeline will likely be problematic for MHK developers. Developers will want a robust/proven system that they can deploy and not worry about for longer than 2 weeks (especially for the continued monitoring of a site).

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2020

Hawai‘i National Marine Renewable Energy Center (HINMREC)

The Hawaii National Marine Renewable Energy Center (HINMREC) was established to facilitate the commercialization of wave energy converter (WEC) devices, and to accelerate development and testing of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) technologies. Housed at the Hawaii Natural Energy Institute (HNEI) of the University of Hawaii (UH), this program started with execution of the contract between the US Department of Energy (DOE) and UH in March 2009, and activities ran through the end of the project in September 2019. The DOE tasked HINMREC with facilitating and accelerating the build-out of the Navy’s Wave Energy Test Site (WETS), the nation’s first grid-connected open water wave energy conversion test facility, located off Marine Corps Base Hawaii (MCBH) in Kaneohe, on the island of Oahu. WETS was expanded from an existing test berth at 30m water depth to include test berths at 60m and 80m water depths. In recognition of the high costs associated with at-sea testing and evaluation of WEC devices, it was deemed imperative that HINMREC seek ways to reduce costs to developers by providing key research support to these early-stage technologies. WETS and HINMREC’s support allowed development of wave energy technology by providing a testing infrastructure that allows technology developers to test, demonstrate and evaluate their WEC devices, and generate data in order to advance WEC designs toward commercial readiness. HINMREC’s roles have included support in the establishment of the full site, including of wave resource characterization and site survey, followed by the essential roles of independent WEC device power performance assessment and environmental monitoring in support of deployed pre-commercial WECs. This DOE-funded work transitioned effectively to continue Navy-funded tasks for OTEC development, and activities at WETS, now under Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) funding. A secondary objective in the establishment of HINMREC was to assist the private sector in moving OTEC systems beyond proof-of-concept to pre-commercialization, primarily focused on system and component engineering, and local and global investigations into the potential environmental impacts of OTEC systems. HINMREC was tasked with maintaining high-resolution models of ocean thermal resources and the potential sustainable power output of OTEC systems. Ongoing tests begun previously under Navy funding at the OTEC Heat Exchangers (HXs) Test Facility at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA), in Kona on Hawaii Island, have been continued to identify cost-effective aluminum alloys for use in OTEC systems operating in the corrosive marine environment.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗