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NASA NTRS1990

Planetary materials and resource utilization: An interdisciplinary engineering design course at Michigan Technological University

A new course was developed and instituted in the spring quarter of 1989 dealing with topics related to space resource utilization and related engineering. The course development required a concerted, coordinated effort, because a similar course which might be used as a guide could not be identified anywhere and the interdisciplinary perspective that was required was not identified anywhere on the university campus. Students in the class worked on interdisciplinary design projects which culminated in papers and oral presentations. Each of the six design groups consisted of several engineers with different disciplinary roots. The entire course lecture sequence, about 50 hours in all, was videotaped. Discussed here are the authors' experiences in developing the course, including the course syllabus and speaker list.

Rose, W. I.↗

NASA NTRS1989

A 'figure-of-merit' approach to extraterrestrial resource utilization

An approach for interrelated optimizations in space missions that utilize extraterrestrial resources is developed, consisting in the concept of an overall mission 'figure-of-merit' leading to more realistic designs than through individual performance maximizations. After a brief discussion of this concept, the synthesis of four major components of any future space mission is considered. The four major components are: orbital mechanics of the transportation; performance of the rocket motors; support systems including power, thermal and process controls, and instruments; and in situ resource utilization plant equipment. The Mars Sample Return mission is the basis of an illustration of the proposed concept. A popular spreadsheet is used to quantitatively demonstrate the interdependent nature of the mission optimization. Future prospects are outlined, that promise great economy through extraterrestrial resource utilization and a quick evaluation technique.

Ramohalli, Kumar↗

NASA NTRS1972

Revolutionary implications of the space shuttle.

The space shuttle concept, generated to meet the stringent requirement for a low-cost transportation system for further exploration and utilization of space, is discussed. By virtue of being a recoverable and reusable delivery vehicle, the space shuttle will provide a substantial reduction in recurring expenses associated with expendable launch vehicles. With its generous volume capacity and weight capability, the shuttle will have a drastic impact on all payloads, regardless of their destination, and will be able to recover spacecraft on a cyclic basis in order to permit their updating and refurbishing for later reuse. The shuttle's maintenance responsibilities may also involve performing scheduled or unscheduled repairs of malfunctioning satellites, either in orbit or after landing. The impact of the space shuttle, as a research laboratory, on the method of space experimentation has even more far-reaching implications.

Von Braun, W.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Maintenance evaluation for space station liquid systems

Many of the thermal and environmental control life support subsystems as well as other subsystems of the space station utilize various liquids and contain components which are either expendables or are life-limited in some way. Since the space station has a 20-year minimum orbital lifetime requirement, there will also be random failures occurring within the various liquid-containing subsystems. These factors as well as the planned space station build-up sequence require that maintenance concepts be developed prior to the design phase. This applies to the equipment which needs maintenance as well as the equipment which may be required at a maintenance work station within the space station. This paper presents several maintenance concepts for liquid-containing items and a flight experiment program which would allow for evaluation and improvement of these concepts so they can be incorporated in the space station designs at the outset of its design phase.

Flugel, Charles↗

NASA NTRS1992

A non-linearly stable implicit finite element algorithm for hypersonic aerodynamics

A generalized curvilinear coordinate Taylor weak statement implicit finite element algorithm is developed for the two-dimensional and axisymmetric compressible Navier-Stokes equations for ideal and reacting gases. For accurate hypersonic simulation, air is modeled as a mixture of five perfect gases, i.e., molecular and atomic oxygen and nitrogen as well as nitric oxide. The associated pressure is then determined via Newton solution of the classical chemical equilibrium equation system. The directional semidiscretization is achieved using an optimal metric data Galerkin finite element weak statement, on a developed 'companion conservation law system', permitting classical test and trial space definitions. Utilizing an implicit Runge-Kutta scheme, the terminal algorithm is then nonlinearly stable, and second-order accurate in space and time on arbitrary curvilinear coordinates. Subsequently, a matrix tensor product factorization procedure permits an efficient numerical linear algebra handling for large Courant numbers. For ideal- and real-gas hypersonic flows, the algorithm generates essentially nonoscillatory numerical solutions in the presence of strong detached shocks and boundary layer-inviscid flow interactions.

Iannelli, G. S.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Design of Space Systems to Enable In-space Assembly and Servicing

For several decades, NASA has employed in-space systems to enhance the performance and extend the useful life of operational orbital assets. In at least one case, an operational mission was not only enhanced, but enabled – the International Space Station was made possible by crewed and robotic in-space assembly, and continues to support installation and operation of new science and technology payloads. In several cases (Hubble Space Telescope, Intelsat 401, Westar and Palapa), major operational assets were rescued or repaired soon after launch when otherwise mission-ending anomalies occurred or were detected. In addition to the original rescue, Hubble was upgraded four times, enabling high-demand, world class science over four decades. More recently, two Northrop Grumman Mission Extension Vehicles have captured two Intelsat spacecraft near the end of their life and fuel capacity, to take over maneuvering duties. In spite of these recent operational achievements, and with the exception of large human exploration vehicles and large space telescopes, space architects rarely consider in-orbit servicing and assembly capabilities in their future planning. Technologies such as multi-launch mission architectures (and rendezvous and proximity operations systems), docking systems, external robotics, advanced tools, modular systems and structures, and fluid transfer systems are available today to support these missions. In-space manufacturing will soon be operational to enable resilient missions that recover from on-orbit failures, and expand the utilization of space. We envision a future that includes these capabilities, and discuss the cultural, engineering, and technological challenges to achieving this vision. We discuss the vision, the proverbial chicken and the egg (which came first, the serviceable spacecraft or the servicer?), the cost, risk, and perceptions thereof of in-space operations, a “spectrum” of cooperative servicing design considerations, and the current status of the space industry’s slow but steady march to widespread operational use of on-orbit servicing, assembly, and manufacturing.

Bo Naasz↗

NASA NTRS1995

SSME component assembly and life management expert system

The Space Shuttle utilizes several rocket engine systems, all of which must function with a high degree of reliability for successful mission completion. The Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) is by far the most complex of the rocket engine systems. In earlier spacecraft, rocket systems (and, in fact, the entire spacecraft) were designed for use on only a single mission and were discarded after use. In a major departure from earlier practices, almost all systems on the Space Shuttle, including the rocket systems, are designed to be reusable; only the external tank is discarded during each mission.

Ali, M.↗

NASA NTRS2003

Earth-to-Orbit Rocket Propulsion

The Earth-to-orbit (ETO) phase of access to space is and always will be the first and most critical phase of all space missions. This first phase of all space missions has unique characteristics that have driven space launcher propulsion requirements for more than half a century. For example, the need to overcome the force of the Earth s gravity in combination with high levels of atmospheric drag to achieve the initial orbital velocity; i.e., Earth parking orbit or =9 km/s, will always require high thrust- to-weight (TN) propulsion systems. These are necessary with a T/W ratio greater than one during the ascent phase. The only type of propulsion system that can achieve these high T/W ratios are those that convert thermal energy to kinetic energy. There are only two basic sources of onboard thermal energy: chemical combustion-based systems or nuclear thermal-based systems (fission, fusion, or antimatter). The likelihood of advanced open-cycle, nuclear thermal propulsion being developed for flight readiness or becoming environmentally acceptable during the next century is extremely low. This realization establishes that chemical propulsion for ET0 launchers will be the technology of choice for at least the next century, just as it has been for the last half century of rocket flight into space. The world s space transportation propulsion requirements have evolved through several phases over the history of the space program, as has been necessitated by missions and systems development, technological capabilities available, and the growth and evolution of the utilization of space for economic, security, and science benefit. Current projections for the continuing evolution of requirements and concepts may show how future space transportation system needs could be addressed. The evolution and projections will be described in detail in this manuscript.

Beaurain, Andre↗

NASA NTRS2006

NASA Crew Launch Vehicle Approach Builds on Lessons from Past and Present Missions

The United States Vision for Space Exploration, announced in January 2004, outlines the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) strategic goals and objectives, including retiring the Space Shuttle and replacing it with a new human-rated system suitable for missions to the Moon and Mars. The Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) that the new Crew Launch Vehicle (CLV) lofts into space early next decade will initially ferry astronauts to the International Space Station and be capable of carrying crews back to lunar orbit and of supporting missions to Mars orbit. NASA is using its extensive experience gained from past and ongoing launch vehicle programs to maximize the CLV system design approach, with the objective of reducing total lifecycle costs through operational efficiencies. To provide in-depth data for selecting this follow-on launch vehicle, the Exploration Systems Architecture Study was conducted during the summer of 2005, following the confirmation of the new NASA Administrator. A team of aerospace subject matter experts used technical, budget, and schedule objectives to analyze a number of potential launch systems, with a focus on human rating for exploration missions. The results showed that a variant of the Space Shuttle, utilizing the reusable Solid Rocket Booster as the first stage, along with a new upper stage that uses a derivative of the RS-25 Space Shuttle Main Engine to deliver 25 metric tons to low-Earth orbit, was the best choice to reduce the risks associated with fielding a new system in a timely manner. The CLV Project, managed by the Exploration Launch Office located at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, is leading the design, development, testing, and operation of this new human-rated system. The CLV Project works closely with the Space Shuttle Program to transition hardware, infrastructure, and workforce assets to the new launch system . leveraging a wealth of lessons learned from Shuttle operations. The CL V is being designed to reduce costs through a number of methods, ranging from validating requirements to conducting trades studies against the concept design. Innovations such as automated processing will build on lessons learned from the Shuttle, other launch systems, Department of Defense operations experience, and subscale flight tests such as the Delta Clipper-Experimental Advanced (DCXA) vehicle operations that utilized minimal touch labor, automated cryogen ic propellant loading , and an 8-hour turnaround for a cryogenic propulsion system. For the CLV, the results of hazard analyses are contributing to an integrated vehicle health monitoring system that will troubleshoot anomalies and determine which ones can be solved without human intervention. Such advances will help streamline the mission operations process for pilots and ground controllers alike. In fiscal year 2005, NASA invested approximately $4.5 billion of its $16 bill ion budget on the Space Shuttle. The ultimate goal of the CLV Project is to deliver a safe, reliable system designed to minimize lifecycle costs so that NASA's budget can be invested in missions of scientific discovery. Lessons learned from developing the CLV will be applied to the growth path for future systems, including a heavy lift launch vehicle.

Dumbacher, Daniel L.↗

DOE OSTI2022

COVID-19 impacts on residential occupancy schedules and activities in U.S. Homes in 2020 using ATUS

Many aspects of the daily lives of those living in the United States were substantially impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in the year 2020. A broad diversity of measures was implemented to curb the spread of the virus, many of which included adjustments to where and how people worked, went to school, and otherwise conducted their daily lives compared to pre-pandemic times. This has impacted how residential buildings are used, how much time people spend in their homes, and as a result, how much energy these buildings consume. The main objective of this study is to analyze, at a national scale, the differences in the occupancy schedules and activities conducted in homes in the U.S., as compared to pre-pandemic. 15 years of American Time Use Survey and Current Population Survey data, from 2006 to 2020, was used in this study to analyze the occupancy schedules for both pandemic (2020) and pre-pandemic (2006–2019) times. These impacts were also analyzed with respect to variables including, weekday/weekend, month of the year, age of the occupants, household income, and household size. The impact of the pandemic on occupant schedules were most substantial in the initial months, whereas as the months progressed, these occupancy profiles slowly changed. Across 2020, people spent, on average, 8 % more time (1.9 h) in their home on weekdays, and 3–6 % (1.2 h) on weekend days. The percentage of time spent for different activities and locations within homes were also studied. For 1-member households, their time spent at home decreased whereas for 2-, 3-, and 4- member households, they spent more time at home. Overall, people spent around 45% more time doing office- and work-related activities at home compared to pre-pandemic, which is likely due to increased remote working and schooling. This research helps to improve the understanding of the occupancy presence and absence profiles in U.S. residential buildings due to the pandemic and provides new insights as to modified profiles for researchers, building designers, and policy makers.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

NASA NTRS2015

Cryogenic Fluid Management Technology Development for Nuclear Thermal Propulsion

The purpose of this paper is to investigate, facilitate a discussion and determine a path forward for technology development of cryogenic fluid management technology that is necessary for long duration deep space missions utilizing nuclear thermal propulsion systems. There are a number of challenges in managing cryogenic liquids that must be addressed before long durations missions into deep space, such as a trip to Mars can be successful. The leakage rate of hydrogen from pressure vessels, seals, lines and valves is a critical factor that must be controlled and minimized. For long duration missions, hydrogen leakage amounts to large increases in hydrogen and therefore vehicle mass. The size of a deep space vehicle, such as a mars transfer vehicle, must be kept small to control cost and the logistics of a multi launch, assembled in orbit vehicle. The boil off control of the cryogenic fluid is an additional obstacle to long duration missions. The boil off caused by heat absorption results in the growth of the propellant needs of the vehicle and therefore vehicle mass. This is a significant problem for a vehicle using nuclear (fission) propulsion systems. Radiation from the engines deposits large quantities of heat into the cryogenic fluid, greatly increasing boil off beyond that caused by environmental heat leakage. Addressing and resolving these challenges is critical to successful long duration space exploration. This paper discusses the state of the technology needed to address these challenges and discuss the path forward needed in technology development.

Taylor, Brian↗

NASA NTRS2016

Feasibility Study for a Near Term Demonstration of Laser-Sail Propulsion from the Ground to Low Earth Orbit

This paper adds to the body of research related to the concept of propellant-less in-space propulsion utilizing an external high energy laser (HEL) to provide momentum to an ultra-lightweight (gossamer) spacecraft. It has been suggested that the capabilities of Space Situational Awareness assets and the advanced analytical tools available for fine resolution orbit determination make it possible to investigate the practicalities of a ground to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) demonstration at delivered power levels that only illuminate a spacecraft without causing damage to it. The degree to which this can be expected to produce a measurable change in the orbit of a low ballistic coefficient spacecraft is investigated. Key system characteristics and estimated performance are derived for a near term mission opportunity involving the LightSail 2 spacecraft and laser power levels modest in comparison to those proposed previously by Forward, Landis, or Marx. [1,2,3] A more detailed investigation of accessing LightSail 2 from Santa Rosa Island on Eglin Air Force Base on the United States coast of the Gulf of Mexico is provided to show expected results in a specific case.

Montgomery, Edward E., IV↗

NASA NTRS1972

Integrated dynamic analysis simulation of space stations with controllable solar array

A methodology is formulated and presented for the integrated structural dynamic analysis of space stations with controllable solar arrays and non-controllable appendages. The structural system flexibility characteristics are considered in the dynamic analysis by a synthesis technique whereby free-free space station modal coordinates and cantilever appendage coordinates are inertially coupled. A digital simulation of this analysis method is described and verified by comparison of interaction load solutions with other methods of solution. Motion equations are simulated for both the zero gravity and artificial gravity (spinning) orbital conditions. Closed loop controlling dynamics for both orientation control of the arrays and attitude control of the space station are provided in the simulation by various generic types of controlling systems. The capability of the simulation as a design tool is demonstrated by utilizing typical space station and solar array structural representations and a specific structural perturbing force. Response and interaction load solutions are presented for this structural configuration and indicate the importance of using an integrated type analysis for the predictions of structural interactions.

Heinrichs, J. A.↗

NASA NTRS1986

CELSS experiment model and design concept of gas recycle system

In order to prolong the duration of manned missions around the Earth and to expand the human existing region from the Earth to other planets such as a Lunar Base or a manned Mars flight mission, the controlled ecological life support system (CELSS) becomes an essential factor of the future technology to be developed through utilization of space station. The preliminary system engineering and integration efforts regarding CELSS have been carried out by the Japanese CELSS concept study group for clarifying the feasibility of hardware development for Space station experiments and for getting the time phased mission sets after FY 1992. The results of these studies are briefly summarized and the design and utilization methods of a Gas Recycle System for CELSS experiments are discussed.

Nitta, K.↗

NASA NTRS1986

A study of factors related to commercial space platform services

In the past four years, the issue of the commercial development of space has come to the forefront of the U. S. national space policy. Though the Administration, Congress and NASA have all shown strong support for encouraging the private sector to become more actively involved in the commercial utilization of space, the question remains whether they must do more to foster the creation and development of a viable U. S. commercial space industry. Marketing aspects, insurance and risk loss, tax related factors, space transportation, termination liability, institutional barriers, and procurement laws and regulations are discussed.

Hosenball, S. N.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Space Station Freedom: Dynamic instrumentation for a large space structure

A proposed approach called Modal Identification Experiment (MIE) for obtaining on-orbit dynamic response measurements on Space Station Freedom, the first of a family of large, flexible space structures is discussed. The Phase 2 conceptual design study which provides a conceptual design of a proposed measurement system and an experimental protocol for inobstrusively collecting dynamic response data critical to characterizing important vibration modes of Space Station Freedom were recently concluded. The case for conducting such a measurement program is presented and the specific MIE objectives that were identified, are listed. The sequence of discrete Space Station Freedom assembly configurations is described, and the Phase 2 conceptual design of the experiment and instrumentation system are defined. In addition, a plan to utilize a space station hydrid scale model in laboratory simulations as part of the design process are discussed.

Raney, John P.↗

NASA NTRS2011

NASA Lunabotics Mining Competition for Universities: Results and Lessons Learned

Space Mining for resources such as water ice, and regolith, which contain many elements in the form of metals, minerals, volatiles and other compounds, is a necessary step in Space Resource Utilization. One of the primary goals is to extract propellants from the regolith such as oxygen and hydrogen which could then be used for in-space transportation. In addition, the space mining system can be used for various construction tasks that can benefit human and robotic exploration as well as scientific investigations based on the exposed topography. The National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) Lunabotics Mining Competition is a university-level competition designed to engage and retain students in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). NASA will directly benefit from the competition by encouraging the development of innovative lunar excavation concepts from universities which may result in clever ideas and solutions which could be applied to an actual lunar excavation device or payload. The challenge is for students to design and build a remote controlled or autonomous excavator, called a lunabot, that can collect and deposit a minimum of 10 kilograms of lunar simulant within 15 minutes. The complexities of the challenge include the abrasive characteristics of the lunar simulant, the weight and size limitations of the lunabot, and the ability to control the lunabot from a remote control center. This paper will present the results of the first and second annual Lunabotics Mining Competitions held in May 2010 and May 2011. In 2010, 22 United States (US) universities competed, and in May 2011 the competition was opened to international participation, with 46 Universities expected to attend. There are 12 international teams and 34 US teams. This combined total directly inspired an estimated 544 university students. More students and the public were engaged via internet broadcasting and social networking media. The various designs will be cataloged and categorized to provide information to future Lunabotics mining robot designers and competitors. It is also expected to be of value for actual future space missions, as knowledge is gained from testing many innovative prototypes in simulated lunar regolith.

Mueller, Robert P.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Lunabotics Mining Competition: Inspiration through Accomplishment

Space Mining for resources such as water ice, and regolith, which contain many elements in the form of metals, minerals, volatiles and other compounds, is a necessary step in Space Resource Utilization. One of the primary goals is to extract propellants from the regolith such as oxygen and hydrogen which could then be used for in-space transportation. In addition, the space mining system can be used for various construction tasks that can benefit human and robotic exploration as well as scientific investigations based on the exposed topography. The National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) Lunabotics Mining Competition is a university-level competition designed to engage and retain students in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). NASA will directly benefit from the competition by encouraging the development of innovative lunar excavation concepts from universities which may result in clever ideas and solutions which could be applied to an actual lunar excavation device or payload. The challenge is for students to design and build a remote controlled or autonomous excavator, called a lunabot, that can collect and deposit a minimum of 10 kilograms of lunar simulant within 15 minutes. The complexities of the challenge include the abrasive characteristics of the lunar simulant, the weight and size limitations of the lunabot, and the ability to control the lunabot from a remote control center or operate autonomously. This paper will present an update of the results and lessons learned during the first and second annual Lunabotics Mining Competitions held in May 2010 and May 2011. It will also preview the 2012 competition with a review of the revised rules. In 2010,22 United States (US) universities competed, and in May 2011 the competition was opened to international participation. In 2011, 36 teams actually competed from 26 USA states and 4 foreign countries (India, Bangladesh, Colombia and Canada). This combined total directly inspired an estimated 653 university students. In 2012 more students and the public will be engaged via internet broadcasting and social networking media. The various designs will be cataloged and categorized to provide information to future Lunabotics mining robot designers and competitors. It is also expected to be of value for actual future space missions, as knowledge is gained from testing many innovative prototypes in simulated lunar regolith.

Mueller, Robert P.↗