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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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663 records · Page 28
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2026

Mass Economy Evaluation for Integrated ECLSS and Propulsion Architecture

As missions in low Earth orbit (LEO) lengthen and extend to deep space, minimizing resupply needs becomes vital for sustaining crewed operations. Traditional life support systems depend on consumables resupplied from Earth, a method that is increasingly impractical for missions beyond LEO, such as lunar outposts or Mars transit. Long-duration missions require more efficient, autonomous systems that can recycle essential resources, particularly water and oxygen, to minimize the frequency and mass of resupply missions. The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) is essential to such missions, with the International Space Station (ISS) serving as a testbed for advanced water recovery and partial oxygen recycling via physico-chemical methods. Yet, ECLSS and propulsion subsystems generally operate independently, despite overlapping requirements and potential areas for synergy. For instance, ECLSS byproducts, water, CO 2 , and hydrogen, could be repurposed for propulsion, potentially reducing dedicated propellant mass and increasing overall system efficiency. One promising approach is to develop shared-resource architectures that integrate ECLSS with propulsion systems. This study examines the potential of such integration through the Sabatier CO₂ reduction process, focusing on water management as a key factor in system mass trade-offs. The Sabatier reaction produces water and methane from metabolic CO 2 and electrolytic hydrogen, partially closing the life support loop and providing methane, which could serve as a propellant. This integration could minimize waste, reduce resupply requirements, and enhance mission mass efficiency. A dynamic modeling framework will be used to simulate resource flows over long missions, capturing interactions between life support and propulsion. By comparing integrated versus separate system configurations, the study aims to quantify mass benefits and penalties, informing future habitat designs and trade studies for missions prioritizing autonomy and mass efficiency.

ECLSS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Intrinsically Conductive {pi}‑d Conjugated Layers with Co–N4 Active Sites for Efficient Nitrate Electrocatalysis and Zinc-Nitrate Batteries

Electrochemical synthesis of ammonia from nitrate has been extensively investigated as a potential alternative to the energy-intensive Haber-Bosch process. This approach not only operates under ambient conditions but also simultaneously removes nitrate contaminants while producing ammonia as a value-added product. However, the ongoing quest lies in designing an efficient electrocatalyst that achieves a high ammonia yield rate, high selectivity, and long-term stability. Herein, we report the outstanding performance of a Co–N4 coordinated π-d layered Co3(HITP)2 (HITP = 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaiminotriphenylene) in nitrate electrocatalysis. The unique combination of abundant Co–N4 active sites and superior electrical conductivity enables significant electrocatalytic activity, delivering a maximum ammonia yield rate of 56.8 mg cm–2 h–1 at −0.8 V vs RHE and a Faradaic efficiency of ∼91% at −0.4 V vs RHE. Mechanistic analysis reveals that alkaline conditions accelerate water dissociation to generate adsorbed hydrogen intermediates (H*), which are utilized by Co–N4 sites to drive the stepwise hydrogenation of nitrate to ammonia while suppressing competing hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) pathways. Furthermore, integration of this catalyst into a zinc-nitrate battery resulted in a maximum power density of 5.3 mW cm–2 and an open-circuit potential of ∼1.45 V. These results highlight the potential of π-d conjugated Co–N4 materials as an efficient catalyst for both environmental remediation and energy conversion.

Namvar, shahrirar↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Technology Readiness Assessment for Stirling Power Convertor

Stirling-based power conversion system could represent a critical enabling technology for future NASA missions, offering significantly enhanced power efficiency over traditional thermoelectric systems. To ensure the successful infusion of this technology into deep space and planetary surface missions, a rigorous evaluation of its maturity and associated risks is essential. The objective of this Technology Readiness Assessment (TRA) is to determine the current technology readiness level (TRL) of the Stirling power convertor and identify key technical risks and challenges associated with its maturation and potential infusion into a targeted flight system. The evaluation process will rigorously follow the NASA TRA procedure: (1) determining the requirements that underpin the design, function, and performance; (2) finding and listing all new technology elements (NTEs) and critical technology elements (CTEs); (3) identifying the level of integration assumed for the assessment; and (4) assessing the TRL for each NTE and CTE. The overall subassembly TRL will then be determined via a roll-up using the “weakest link” criterion, culminating in a final (5) assessment of risks to further progression of maturity. This paper will present the results of a comprehensive technology readiness assessment (TRA) conducted on the Stirling-based dynamic power conversion subassembly, excluding the radioisotope heat source. The paper will also describe a detailed breakdown of the TRL roll-up and a matrix of identified risks and recommended mitigation paths, along with identified key technical risks and challenges to achieve the required long-duration performance. Key Words: Radioisotope Power Conversion, Technology Readiness Assessment

Radioisotope Power Conversion↗
DOE OSTI2026

Development of an Amine Oxide Polyzwitterion Brush Martini Model with Polarizable Water and Ions

Abstract In order to accurately simulate the fouling process of proteins onto polyzwitterion brushes, models that accurately capture the hydration properties and chain conformations of such brushes must first be established. We developed a Martini coarse-grained (CG) model for amine oxide polyzwitterion (PNOMA) brushes, a promising class of antifouling materials, in polarizable water and ions by fitting to all-atom bond and angle distributions, monomer hydration free energy, monomer–monomer distance potential of mean force (PMF), and monomer–salt radial distribution functions (RDFs). Martini 2.2P was selected for compatibility with the established polarizable water and ion models. For comparison with PNOMA, we also constructed models for conventional sulfobetaine (PSBMA) and phosphorylcholine (PMPC) polyzwitterions and the polycation PMETAC using established nonbonded bead types from the literature and refitting bond and angle potentials. We simulated each polymer brush chemistry for varying grafting density and chain length, validating brush height scaling relations against experimental data. The CG models captured the relative hydration strengths among different polyzwitterion chemistries, and brush heights extrapolated to higher molecular weights are in agreement with experimental ellipsometry data. We find that chain swelling of the superhydrophilic PNOMA brushes lies between that of the traditional polyzwitterions PSBMA/PMPC and the polycation PMETAC. For PNOMA brushes in NaCl solution, simulated brush height decreases with salt concentration due to the selectively strong interactions between amine oxide and sodium ions.

Walker, Christopher C. [Oak Ridge National Laborat↗
DOE OSTI2024

Λ polarization from vortex rings as the medium response for jet thermalization

We performed a systematic study on the formation of vorticity rings as the process for jet thermalization in the medium created in high-energy nuclear collisions. In this work, we expanded our previous analysis to a more realistic framework by considering noncentral events and fluctuations in the initial condition. We simulate the formation and evolution of the flow vortex structure in a relativistic viscous hydrodynamic model and study the sensitivity of the proposed “ring observable” (ℛ$^{𝑡}_{Λ}$) that can be measured experimentally through the polarization of Λ hyperons. We show that this observable is robust with respect to fluctuating initial conditions to capture the jet-induced vortex flow signal and further study its dependence on different model parameters, such as the jet's velocity, position, the fluid's shear viscosity, and the collision centrality. The proposed observable is associated with the formation of vorticity in a quark-gluon plasma, showing that the measurement of particle polarization can be a powerful tool to probe different properties of jet-medium interactions and to understand better the polarization induced by the transverse and longitudinal expansions of the medium.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Open quantum system approach to inclusive jet production in heavy-ion collisions

We derive a factorization formula for inclusive jet production in heavy-ion collisions using the tools of Effective Field Theory (EFT). We show how physics at widely separated scales in this process can be systematically separated by matching to EFTs at successively lower virtualities. Owing to a strong scale separation, we recover a vacuum-like DGLAP evolution above the jet scale, while the additional low-energy scales induced by the medium effectively probe the internal structure of the jet. As a result, the cross section can be written as a series with an increasing number of subjets characterized by perturbative matching coefficients each of which is convolved with a distinct function. These functions encode broadening, medium-induced radiations as well as quantum interference such as the Landau-Pomeranchuk-Migdal effect and color coherence dynamics to all orders in perturbation theory. As a first application of this EFT framework, we investigate the case of an unresolved jet and show how the cross section can be factorized and fully separate the jet dynamics from the universal physics of the medium. To compare to the existing literature, we explicitly compute the medium jet function at next-to-leading order in the coupling and leading order in medium opacity.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Mitigation of polysulfide shuttle effect in Li-S batteries through catalytic disproportionation reaction

Polysulfides are poorly retained within porous cathodes and readily diffuse into the electrolyte over time, leading to the well-known shuttle effect that undermines the reversibility of Li-S batteries. Here, in this study, we demonstrate that catalytic disproportionation of polysulfides provides an effective pathway to suppress this process by rapidly converting dissolved species into solid sulfur and sulfides, thereby preventing their migration into the electrolyte. Fundamentally, the sluggish kinetics of sulfur redox reactions are responsible for the accumulation and redistribution of soluble polysulfides in the bulk electrolyte. By accelerating these kinetics, catalyzed disproportionation not only confines sulfur within the conductive cathode matrix but also promotes the homogeneous precipitation of Li₂S₂/Li₂S, which enhances electrochemical reversibility and cycling stability. Using nitrogen-doped carbon (NC800) as a model catalyst, we reveal its ability to drive a pseudo-16-electron reduction pathway, leading to a single dominant Li₂S product and uniform deposition within the porous framework. In contrast, a non-catalytic carbon (KB) yields multiple polysulfide intermediates and heterogeneous deposition. The mechanistic insights provided here highlight the pivotal role of catalytic disproportionation in reshaping sulfur redox pathways and offer a rational strategy for mitigating polysulfide shuttling in practical Li-S pouch cells.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Echo state network for coarsening dynamics of charge density waves

An echo state network (ESN) is a type of reservoir computer that uses a recurrent neural network with a sparsely connected hidden layer. Compared with other recurrent neural networks, one great advantage of ESN is the simplicity of its training process. Yet, despite the seemingly restricted learnable parameters, ESN has been shown to successfully capture the spatial-temporal dynamics of complex patterns. Here we build an ESN to model the coarsening dynamics of charge-density waves (CDWs) in a semiclassical Holstein model, which exhibits a checkerboard electron density modulation at half-filling stabilized by a commensurate lattice distortion. The inputs to the ESN are local CDW order parameters in a finite neighborhood centered around a given site, while the output is the predicted CDW order of the center site at the next time step. Special care is taken in the design of couplings between hidden layer and input nodes to ensure lattice symmetries are properly incorporated into the ESN model. Since the model predictions depend only on CDW configurations of a finite domain, the ESN is scalable and transferrable in the sense that a model trained on dataset from a small system can be directly applied to dynamical simulations on larger lattices. Furthermore, our work opens avenues for efficient dynamical modeling of pattern formations in functional electron materials.

2-dimensional systems↗
DOE OSTI2026

Complex-Concentrated Anion Doping Enables Ultra-Stable Lattice Oxygen and Structural Integrity in Lithium-Rich Layered Oxide Cathodes

Lithium- and manganese-rich layered oxides (LMR) stand out as next-generation lithium-ion cathode chemistries, which harness both transition-metal and lattice-oxygen redox processes to deliver exceptional capacity and energy density. However, their full potential is hindered by intrinsic oxygen instability and structural degradation, resulting in pronounced voltage fade and capacity decay. Here, we present a complex-concentrated anion-doping paradigm in which multiple anions, F, Br, and S, are incorporated into the oxygen sublattice to enhance oxygen-redox and structural stability. X-ray absorption spectroscopy and aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy confirm ultra-stable local oxygen coordination environments during long-term cycling, with detrimental phase transformations and oxygen-loss-induced cavitation dramatically inhibited. Notably, we show that the characteristic LiTM6 transition metal (TM) honeycomb ordering is preserved even after electrochemical cycling. Concurrently, this strategy yields an unprecedented volume change of only 0.63% upon charging to 4.8 V vs. Li+/Li, achieving the first zero-strain LMR cathode. The resulting LMR cathode delivers ultralow voltage fade (1 mV per cycle during the first 100 cycles and becomes negligible in subsequent cycles) and outstanding energy retention (93% after 200 cycles) in a pouch cell configuration. Our complex-concentrated anion-doping concept establishes a broadly applicable strategy for resolving chemo-mechanical failure mechanisms in ceramic intercalation electrodes for next-generation energy storage.

Li-ion batteries↗
DOE OSTI2024

Selective ion transport through hydrated micropores in polymer membranes

Abstract Ion-conducting polymer membranes are essential in many separation processes and electrochemical devices, including electrodialysis 1 , redox flow batteries 2 , fuel cells 3 and electrolysers 4,5 . Controlling ion transport and selectivity in these membranes largely hinges on the manipulation of pore size. Although membrane pore structures can be designed in the dry state 6 , they are redefined upon hydration owing to swelling in electrolyte solutions. Strategies to control pore hydration and a deeper understanding of pore structure evolution are vital for accurate pore size tuning. Here we report polymer membranes containing pendant groups of varying hydrophobicity, strategically positioned near charged groups to regulate their hydration capacity and pore swelling. Modulation of the hydrated micropore size (less than two nanometres) enables direct control over water and ion transport across broad length scales, as quantified by spectroscopic and computational methods. Ion selectivity improves in hydration-restrained pores created by more hydrophobic pendant groups. These highly interconnected ion transport channels, with tuned pore gate sizes, show higher ionic conductivity and orders-of-magnitude lower permeation rates of redox-active species compared with conventional membranes, enabling stable cycling of energy-dense aqueous organic redox flow batteries. This pore size tailoring approach provides a promising avenue to membranes with precisely controlled ionic and molecular transport functions.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
NASA NTRS1994

Review of European Microgravity Measurements

AA In a French/Russion cooperation, CNES developed a microgravity detection system for analyzing the Mir space station micro-g-environment for the first time. European efforts to characterize the microgravity (1/9) environment within a space laboratory began in the late seventies with the design of the First Spacelab Mission SL-1. Its Material Science Double Rack was the first payload element to carry its own tri-axial acceleration package. Even though incapable for any frequency analysis, the data provided a wealth of novel information for optimal experiment and hardware design and operations for missions to come. Theoretical investigations under ESA contract demonstrated the significance of the detailed knowledge of micro-g data for a thorough experiment analysis. They especially revealed the high sensitivity of numerous phenomena to low frequency acceleration. Accordingly, the payloads of the Spacelab missions D-1 and D-2 were furnished with state-of-the-art detection systems to ensure frequency analysis between 0.1 and 100 Hz. The Microgravity Measurement Assembly (MMA) of D-2 was a centralized system comprising fixed installed as well as mobile tri-axial packages showing real-time data processing and transmission to ground. ESA's free flyer EURECA carried a system for continuous measurement over the entire mission. All EURECA subsystems and experimental facilities had to meet tough requirements defining the upper acceleration limits. In a French/Russion cooperation, CNES developed a mi crogravity detection system for analyzing the Mir space station micro-g-environment for the first time. An approach to get access to low frequency acceleration between 0 and 0.02 Hz will be realized by QSAM (Quasi-steady Acceleration Measurement) on IML-2, complementary to the NASA system Spacelab Acceleration Measurement System SAMS. A second flight of QSAM is planned for the Russian free flyer FOTON.

H Hamacher↗
DOE OSTI2026

Mechanism of H 2 plasma-enabled reduction of hematite thin films

Hydrogen plasma is gaining significant interest as a promising pathway for direct iron ore reduction and for lowering process temperatures but the reduction mechanism remains poorly understood. In this work we analyzed the plasma and thermal reduction of thin-film hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ) at temperatures below 340 °C using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Plasma reduced the incubation period by an order of magnitude and increased the reduction rate by a factor of 2.6 compared to thermal reduction. Plasma-produced H-atoms facilitate the formation of numerous iron nucleation sites, bypassing the energetically unfavorable dissociative adsorption of H 2 on iron oxide. These iron nuclei can autocatalyze the reduction of the surrounding hematite via a hydrogen spillover mechanism. Our results demonstrate that plasma-derived H-atoms primarily impact the initial nucleation-limited stage. These new insights provide a mechanistic framework that can aid the implementation and optimization of hydrogen plasma-assisted iron oxide reduction at reduced temperatures.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2026

Optimal binning of correlated measurements

Experimental measurements are commonly represented on a discrete grid, requiring a balance between granularity and statistical noise. Two strategies have traditionally been used to improve such representations: selecting an appropriate bin width to control discretization error and applying kernel-based smoothing to suppress fluctuations. Despite their shared goal, these approaches have largely developed independently, without a unified statistical description of how discretization and correlation jointly determine measurement precision. Here, we extend the discussion of optimal interval averaging to a correlation-aware setting by Gaussian process regression, which explicitly accounts for correlations among neighboring bins. Starting from first principles, we derive the mean-squared error of discretized measurements and obtain closed-form asymptotic expressions for the optimal bin width and correlation length. When recast in reduced variables, the theory reveals distinct universal scaling laws governing the error in the correlation-free and correlation-controlled regimes. Characterized by intrinsically smooth intensity profiles and counting-based statistics, neutron scattering measurements are well suited for demonstrating the enhanced error contraction enabled by inter-bin correlations. We show that such improvement is achievable over the experimentally accessible Q-range and across multiple instruments and material systems. These results show that explicitly accounting for correlations systematically reshapes the limits of precision in discretized, noise-limited measurements. More broadly, the framework provides a transferable statistical foundation for optimizing data representation, inference, and experimental design across the physical and data sciences.

Tung, Chi-Huan [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000221972074)↗
NASA NTRS2026

Beyond Melting: Amorphous Bonding for Joining and Consolidation

Crystallization may be the hidden constraint in thermoplastic composite manufacturing. It requires tightly controlled cooling, induces residual stresses through shrinkage, and introduces path-dependent behavior that complicates predictive modeling yet remains essential for structural performance. This work asks: can bonding be achieved without relying on melt-driven crystallization? To address this, thin (5–20 μm) polyetherimide (PEI) interlayers are pre-healed to slow-cooled polyaryletherketone (PAEK) in two contexts. The first, Thermabond®, is sub-melt joining of low melt-PAEK laminates. Results show that bond quality is governed primarily by processing (i.e., adequate healing and film handling) rather than modest changes in interlayer thickness. This concept is then extended to laminate-scale manufacturing through an architecture known as OATMEAL (Out-of-autoclave Amorphous/semicrystalline Thermoplastic Material for Energy-efficient Aerospace-grade Laminates). PEI is healed to carbon fiber reinforced polyetheretherketone (PEEK) at the prepreg and excess PEI is then ablated from the surface. Crystallinity is developed off-line during prepreg fabrication, while subsequent consolidation occurs below the melt temperature to preserve it. Cross-ply warpage experiments show that, contrary to intuition, repeated amorphous interfaces reduce global curvature by lowering the effective stress lock-in temperature and eliminating crystallization shrinkage from the lamina response. Correspondingly, laminate behavior is accurately predicted using classical laminate theory (CLT) with a single effective stress-free temperature, whereas conventional CF/PEEK requires accounting for crystallization-driven effects. By decoupling interfacial healing from crystallization, OATMEAL enables sub-melt consolidation, reduces energy consumption by up to 75%, and increases manufacturing throughput by fivefold. These results demonstrate that amorphous bonding is not only a joining strategy, but a pathway to more predictable and scalable thermoplastic composite manufacturing.

solidification↗
NASA NTRS2026

Towards an improved understanding of the Antarctic coastal zone and its contribution to future global sea level

Understanding the coastal zone of the Antarctic Ice Sheet, where it interacts with the Southern Ocean and warmer air masses, is crucial for predicting Antarctica's influence on the global climate. This region has multiple tipping mechanisms that could trigger large, rapid, and potentially irreversible changes in the coming centuries. The Antarctic Ice Sheet remains the largest source of uncertainty in future sea-level projections. Insufficient knowledge of bed topography beneath the ice shelves and the coastal ice sheet is not yet well documented, but is a major source of this uncertainty. This review assesses current knowledge of the coastal zone and highlights methods to investigate it, including aerogeophysical surveys, ground- and ship-based measurements, satellite observations, and computer modeling. An ensemble analysis of published bed topography datasets identifies significant data gaps and their regional distribution, framed in the context of current ice-sheet behavior and potential instability. We propose scientific priorities and guidelines for future aerogeophysical surveys, advocating for a comprehensive, coordinated international effort to build a next-generation dataset of Antarctic bed properties. Such an initiative would significantly advance understanding of the role of coastal processes in ice-sheet dynamics, reducing uncertainties in sea-level rise projections and enhancing predictions of future ocean and climate changes.

Kenichi Matsuoka↗
DOE OSTI2025

A Reductively Stable Electrolyte Realizes Deep Cycling Behavior in Anode‐free Sodium Batteries

For anode‐free sodium batteries to achieve practical consideration, highly reversible chemistries require exceptional ≥99.95% coulombic efficiencies that maintain over prolonged cycling periods. To do so, consumption of this severely limited sodium inventory must be restricted while metal nucleation processes that comprise the in situ formed metal anode are improved. Herein, we describe a fluorine‐free carborane electrolyte that satisfies these criteria by emphasizing reductive stability and weakly coordinating anion behavior as design principles. We find this approach promotes the development of a thin, robust SEI chemistry rich in both organic speciation and boron. The electrolyte described herein exhibits ideal metal nucleation behavior on one‐micron thin carbonaceous current collector surfaces and achieves a metal deposition/stripping efficiency near parity for 400 cycles. This novel anode chemistry is introduced to anode‐free full cell configurations where 87% of the initial discharge capacity is retained after 1000 cycles at 2.0 C. In conclusion, post‐test characterization of deep‐cycled anode‐free cells reveals suppressed capacity fade in these systems is attributed to the chemical stability of the carborane anion.

anode-free↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Parametric Battery Model for the Conceptual Design of Electric Aircraft

Electric aircraft conceptual designs usually have an assumed specific power and specific energy for the aircraft’s energy storage system that dictates the total capacity and the peak power available. The specific energy and power are inherently linked to the state-of-charge and discharge rate from which they were derived; therefore, they will not directly correspond to the diverse circumstances encountered in various aircraft missions and flight segments. These parameters turn the battery system into a black box, disregard potential electrical restrictions, and disallow the aircraft and battery to be optimized as a system. Peering into this box, this study highlights the importance of incorporating a parametric battery model into the conceptual design workflow by splitting high-level terms such as power into voltage and current and investigating their variability during the discharge process. Through the modeling of these more detailed parameters, this methodology shows the feasibility of using low states-of-charge for contingency operations, including the end of the reserve mission, expanding the amount of usable capacity for electric aircraft. Stark differences in aircraft capabilities can arise between varying fidelity battery models due to late-mission, high-power flight operations. This parametric battery model effectively captures these differences by evaluating the limitations that arise within the individual battery cells and the aircraft powertrain. This paper shows that the unusable charge of a battery is set by the balked landing power requirement and can realistically range from 5% to 44% based on assumptions. This sets the analog to unusable fuel capacity in aircraft with liquid fuel systems. Needing only aircraft- and mission-level inputs and only seconds of run time, this model is a prime fit for the fast, accurate exploration of the electric aircraft conceptual design space.

Battery↗
DOE OSTI2023

Hybrid Data‐Driven Discovery of High‐Performance Silver Selenide‐Based Thermoelectric Composites

Optimizing material compositions often enhances thermoelectric performances. However, the large selection of possible base elements and dopants results in a vast composition design space that is too large to systematically search using solely domain knowledge. To address this challenge, a hybrid data-driven strategy that integrates Bayesian optimization (BO) and Gaussian process regression (GPR) is proposed to optimize the composition of five elements (Ag, Se, S, Cu, and Te) in AgSe-based thermoelectric materials. Data is collected from the literature to provide prior knowledge for the initial GPR model, which is updated by actively collected experimental data during the iteration between BO and experiments. Within seven iterations, the optimized AgSe-based materials prepared using a simple high-throughput ink mixing and blade coating method deliver a high power factor of 2100 µW m −1 K −2 , which is a 75% improvement from the baseline composite (nominal composition of Ag 2 Se 1 ). In conclusion, the success of this study provides opportunities to generalize the demonstrated active machine learning technique to accelerate the development and optimization of a wide range of material systems with reduced experimental trials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗