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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS1983

Experimental design of an interlaboratory study for trace metal analysis of liquid fluids

The accurate determination of trace metals and fuels is an important requirement in much of the research into and development of alternative fuels for aerospace applications. Recognizing the detrimental effects of certain metals on fuel performance and fuel systems at the part per million and in some cases part per billion levels requires improved accuracy in determining these low concentration elements. Accurate analyses are also required to ensure interchangeability of analysis results between vendor, researcher, and end use for purposes of quality control. Previous interlaboratory studies have demonstrated the inability of different laboratories to agree on the results of metal analysis, particularly at low concentration levels, yet typically good precisions are reported within a laboratory. An interlaboratory study was designed to gain statistical information about the sources of variation in the reported concentrations. Five participant laboratories were used on a fee basis and were not informed of the purpose of the analyses. The effects of laboratory, analytical technique, concentration level, and ashing additive were studied in four fuel types for 20 elements of interest. The prescribed sample preparation schemes (variations of dry ashing) were used by all of the laboratories. The analytical data were statistically evaluated using a computer program for the analysis of variance technique.

Greenbauer-Seng, L. A.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Implementation of an Unsteady PSP System in the NASA Transonic Dynamics Tunnel

An unsteady pressure-sensitive paint (uPSP) system has been developed to provide time-resolved pressure measurements in the NASA Langley Transonic Dynamics Tunnel (TDT). Obtaining these measurements necessitated the development of environmental enclosures to protect the high-speed camera and ultraviolet lights required for uPSP from the harsh environment present during tunnel operation. Since the facility main drive was non-functioning during the testing window, performance of the uPSP system was demonstrated using an impinging jet with a passive oscillator attachment to provide unsteady flow with a known frequency independent of amplitude. Measurements were obtained for tunnel pressures ranging from 565 to 2116 psf, and model angles of attack between -4 degrees and 4 degrees. Results indicate that the system is capable of measuring surface pressure differentials on the order of 0.01 psi at full scale with a camera frame rate of at least 10 kHz. Spectral analysis shows that the fundamental frequency of the oscillating jet is captured by the uPSP system, as are the second and third harmonics. Dynamic mode decomposition highlights the dominant coherent spatial structures of the surface pressure, along with the associated frequency and growth rate of each mode, allowing for a de-noised reconstruction of the uPSP measurements. The experimental campaign outlined within this report also confirmed compatibility of the uPSP system with the TDT facility data acquisition system, and verified the successful integration with existing processing capabilities within the NASA advanced supercomputing environment.

unsteady pressure-sensitive paint↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Implementation of an Unsteady PSP System in the NASA Transonic Dynamics Tunnel

unsteady pressure-sensitive paint↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Implementation of an Unsteady PSP System in the NASA TDT

unsteady pressure-sensitive paint↗

NASA NTRS2012

CRYogenic Orbital TEstbed Ground Test Article Thermal Analysis

The purpose of this study was to anchor thermal and fluid system models to CRYOTE ground test data. The CRYOTE ground test artide was jointly developed by Innovative Engineering Solutions, United Launch Alliance and NASA KSC. The test article was constructed out of a titanium alloy tank, Sapphire 77 composite skin (similar to G10), an external secondary payload adapter ring, thermal vent system, multi layer insulation and various data acquisition instrumentation. In efforts to understand heat loads throughout this system, the GTA (filled with liquid nitrogen for safety purposes) was subjected to a series of tests in a vacuum chamber at Marshall Space Flight Center. By anchoring analytical models against test data, higher fidelity thermal environment predictions can be made for future flight articles which would eventually demonstrate critical cryogenic fluid management technologies such as system chilldown, transfer, pressure control and long term storage. Significant factors that influenced heat loads included radiative environments, multi-layer insulation performance, tank fill levels and pressures and even contact conductance coefficients. This report demonstrates how analytical thermal/fluid networks were established and includes supporting rationale for specific thermal responses.

Piryk, David↗

NASA NTRS2015

NASA's Meteoroid Environments Office's Response to Three Significant Bolide Events Over North America

Being the only U.S. Government entity charged with monitoring the meteor environment, the Meteoroid Environment Office has deployed a network of all sky and wide field meteor cameras, along with the appropriate software tools to quickly analyze data from these systems. However, the coverage of this network is still quite limited, forcing the incorporation of data from other cameras posted to the internet in analyzing many of the fireballs reported by the public and media. A procedure has been developed that determines the analysis process for a given fireball event based on the types and amount of data available. The differences between these analysis process will be explained and outlined by looking at three bolide events, all of which were large enough to produce meteorites. The first example is an ideal event - a bright meteor that occurred over NASA's All Sky Camera Network on August 2, 2014. With clear video of the event from various angles, a high-accuracy trajectory, beginning and end heights, orbit and approximate brightness/size of the event are able to be found very quickly using custom software. The bolide had the potential to have dropped meteorites, so dark flight analysis and modeling was performed, allowing potential fall locations to be mapped as a function of meteorite mass. The second case study was a bright bolide that occurred November 3, 2014 over West Virginia. This was just north of the NASA southeastern all-sky network, and just south of the Ohio-Pennsylvania network. This case study showcases the MEO's ability to use social media and various internet sources to locate videos of the event from obscure sources (including the Washington Monument) for anything that will permit a determination of a basic trajectory and fireball light curve The third case study will highlight the ability to use doppler weather radar in helping locate meteorites, which enable a definitive classification of the impactor. The input data and analysis steps differ for each case study, but the goals remain the same - a trajectory, orbit, and mass estimate for the bolide within hours of the event, and, for events with a high probability of producing meteorites, a location of the strewn field within a day.

Blaauw, Rhiannon C.↗

NASA NTRS1979

Preliminary results of SAR soil moisture experiment, November 1975

The experiment was performed using the Environmental Research Institute of Michigan's (ERIM) dual-frequency and dual-polarization side-looking SAR system on board a C-46 aircraft. For each frequency, horizontally polarized pulses were transmitted and both horizontally and vertically polarized return signals were recorded on the signal film simultaneously. The test sites were located in St. Charles, Missouri; Centralia, Missouri; and Lafayette, Indiana. Each test site was a 4.83 km by 8.05 km (3 mile by 5 mile) rectangular strip of terrain. Concurrent with SAR overflight, ground soil samples of 0-to-2.5 cm and 0-to-15 cm layers were collected for soil moisture estimation. The surface features were also noted. Hard-copy image films and the digital data produced via optical processing of the signal films are analyzed in this report to study the relationship of radar backscatter to the moisture content and the surface roughness. Many difficulties associated with processing and analysis of the SAR imagery are noted. In particular, major uncertainty in the quantitative analysis appeared due to the difficulty of quality reproduction of digital data from the signal films.

Choudhury, B. J.↗

NASA NTRS1994

TLIFE: a Program for Spur, Helical and Spiral Bevel Transmission Life and Reliability Modeling

This report describes a computer program, 'TLIFE', which models the service life of a transmission. The program is written in ANSI standard Fortran 77 and has an executable size of about 157 K bytes for use on a personal computer running DOS. It can also be compiled and executed in UNIX. The computer program can analyze any one of eleven unit transmissions either singly or in a series combination of up to twenty-five unit transmissions. Metric or English unit calculations are performed with the same routines using consistent input data and a units flag. Primary outputs are the dynamic capacity of the transmission and the mean lives of the transmission and of the sum of its components. The program uses a modular approach to separate the load analyses from the system life calculations. The program and its input and output data files are described herein. Three examples illustrate its use. A development of the theory behind the analysis in the program is included after the examples.

Savage, M.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Development of Intent Information Changes to Revised Minimum Aviation System Performance Standards for Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (RTCA/DO-242A)

RTCA Special Committee 186 has recently adopted a series of changes to the original Minimum Aviation System Performance Standards (MASPS) for Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B). The new document will be published as DO-242A. Major changes to the MASPS include a significant restructuring and expansion of the intent parameters for future ADS-B systems. ADS-B provides a means for aircraft to exchange information about their intended trajectories with each other and with ground systems. NASA and Boeing have played significant roles in recommending these changes and providing supporting analysis. The intent changes are anticipated to provide substantial benefits to several programs and operational concepts under development by the two organizations. Major changes include the addition of Target State reports and the replacement of Trajectory Change Point reports with Trajectory Change reports. These changes have been designed to better reflect the capabilities of existing and future aircraft avionics, while providing benefits to current and proposed applications. DO-242A implements intent information elements that can be supported by current avionics systems and data buses. Provisions are made for future incorporation of other intent elements, as needed to meet operational requirements. This document summarizes the reasons for the DO-242A intent changes and provides a detailed overview of current and future intended ADS-B MASPS changes related to aircraft intent.

Barhydt, Richard↗

NASA NTRS2003

Doppler Imaging with FUSE: The Partially Eclipsing Binary VW Cep

This report covers the FUSE Guest Observer program. This project involves the study of emission line profiles for the partially eclipsing, rapidly rotating binary system VW Cep. Active regions on the surface of the star(s) produce observable line shifts as the stars move with respect to the observer. By studying the time-dependence of the line profile changes and centroid shifts, one can determine the location of the activity. FUSE spectra were obtained by the P.I. 27 Sept 2002 and data reduction is in progress. Since we are interested in line profile analysis, we are now investigating the wavelength scale calibration in some detail. We have also obtained and are analyzing Chandra data in order to compare the X-ray velocities with the FUV velocities. A complementary project comparing X-ray and Far UltraViolet (FUV) emission for the similar system 44i Boo is also underway. Postdoctoral fellow Ronnie Hoogerwerf has joined the investigation team and will perform the data analysis, once the calibration is optimized.

Sonneborn, George↗

NASA NTRS2006

Logistics Lessons Learned in NASA Space Flight

The Vision for Space Exploration sets out a number of goals, involving both strategic and tactical objectives. These include returning the Space Shuttle to flight, completing the International Space Station, and conducting human expeditions to the Moon by 2020. Each of these goals has profound logistics implications. In the consideration of these objectives,a need for a study on NASA logistics lessons learned was recognized. The study endeavors to identify both needs for space exploration and challenges in the development of past logistics architectures, as well as in the design of space systems. This study may also be appropriately applied as guidance in the development of an integrated logistics architecture for future human missions to the Moon and Mars. This report first summarizes current logistics practices for the Space Shuttle Program (SSP) and the International Space Station (ISS) and examines the practices of manifesting, stowage, inventory tracking, waste disposal, and return logistics. The key findings of this examination are that while the current practices do have many positive aspects, there are also several shortcomings. These shortcomings include a high-level of excess complexity, redundancy of information/lack of a common database, and a large human-in-the-loop component. Later sections of this report describe the methodology and results of our work to systematically gather logistics lessons learned from past and current human spaceflight programs as well as validating these lessons through a survey of the opinions of current space logisticians. To consider the perspectives on logistics lessons, we searched several sources within NASA, including organizations with direct and indirect connections with the system flow in mission planning. We utilized crew debriefs, the John Commonsense lessons repository for the JSC Mission Operations Directorate, and the Skylab Lessons Learned. Additionally, we searched the public version of the Lessons Learned Information System (LLIS) and verified that we received the same result using the internal version of LLIS for our logistics lesson searches. In conducting the research, information from multiple databases was consolidated into a single spreadsheet of 300 lessons learned. Keywords were applied for the purpose of sorting and evaluation. Once the lessons had been compiled, an analysis of the resulting data was performed, first sorting it by keyword, then finding duplication and root cause, and finally sorting by root cause. The data was then distilled into the top 7 lessons learned across programs, centers, and activities.

Evans, William A.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Contamination of grazing incidence EUV mirrors - An assessment

Contamination assessment for space optical systems requires an understanding of the sensitivity of component performance, e.g. mirror reflectance, to materials deposited on the mirror surface. In a previous study, the sensitivity of typical normal incidence mirror coatings to surface deposits of generic hydrocarbons was reported. Recent activity in the development of grazing incidence telescopes for extreme ultraviolet space astronomy has stimulated the need for a similar assessment in the spectral region extending from approximately 100 A to 1000 A. The model used for analysis treats the contamination layer as a continuous thin film deposited on the mirror surface. The mirror surfaces selected for this study are opaque vacuum deposited gold and the uncoated and polished Zerodur. Scatter caused by film irregularities or particulates are not included in this assessment. Parametric evaluations at 100, 500, and 1000 A determine the sensitivity of mirror reflectance to a range of optical constants selected for the generic contaminants. This sensitivity analysis combined with the limited amount of optical data in the EUV for hydrocarbons, is used to select representative optical constants for the three wavelength regions. Reflectance versus contamination layer thickness curves are then calculated and used to determine critical thickness limits based on allowable reflectance change. Initial observations indicate that thickness limits will be highly dependent on the real part of the complex index of refraction of the contaminant film being less than 1.0. Preliminary laboratory measurements of samples contaminated with some commonly encountered hydrocarbons confirm trends indicated in the analytical studies.

Osantowski, John F.↗

NASA NTRS2010

High-Volume Airborne Fluids Handling Technologies to Fight Wildfires

NASA recently partnered with the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) on a project to examine mission suitability and recommend policies and procedures for the use of very large aerial firefighting aircraft such as the Boeing 747 and DC-10 aerial retardant delivery aircraft. The aircraft under study included a 10Tanker DC-10 and an Evergreen B-747. NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center and Ames Research Center worked with the USFS to help determine the safe flight envelope for these Very Large Air Tanker (VLAT) aircraft for the USFS and the Department of the Interior (DOI). This new generation of supertankers includes aircraft like these that have as much as four times the delivery capacity of the previous generation of aerial firefighting aircraft. Dryden performed operational test and evaluation assessments and reported findings and recommendations on these aircraft in cooperation with Ames. The team developed, implemented, and directed an evaluation test plan for use in flight test and in simulation. Ames provided support using pilot-in-the-loop simulations and coordinated simulator models, flight profiles, and data analysis with Dryden. The test plan was designed to evaluate the suitability of VLAT aircraft as a function of mission environment. Based on this analysis, NASA generated interim flight envelope limitations to enhance safety and operational utility in the fire-retardant delivery mission. These recommended flight limitations were adopted by the USFS. The 10Tanker DC-10 has been in use for several years with the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection(Cal-Fire), but until NASA took on the challenge of reviewing VLAT capabilities and limitations, the USFS was hesitant to add them to the federal wildfire arsenal. The DC-10 delivery system is based on an externally mounted set of tanks and a bomb-bay style set of clamshell doors that are opened in precisely calibrated ways to deliver the amounts and concentrations of retardant called for by the specific wildfire situation. The system was manufactured by Jordan Air of Central Point, OR, and was installed by Victorville Aerospace in Victorville, CA. It can deliver 12,000 gallons (45.4 kL) of retardant in as little as eight seconds. The aircraft can deliver a partial load of retardant and make multiple drops on the same flight, or the entire load can be rapidly delivered in one pass if required for maximum coverage. The Evergreen 747 uses internal tankage and a pressurized delivery system to enable volume and coverage levels that also meet USFS requirements, but enables computer control of flow for desired precision. This system was designed and built by Adaptive Aerospace of Tehachapi, CA and can deliver about 20,000 gallons (75.7 kL) of retardant in approximately ten seconds. The 747 can also make multiple independent drops, or deliver the entire load at once. NASA found that both of these VLAT aircraft are compatible with the wildfire suppression mission when used to supplement other aerial retardant delivery platforms. The major recommendations for deployment that resulted from this study relate to terrain clearance, the type of terrain in the drop area, availability of qualified lead planes to guide the VLAT approach to the drop area, and low-altitude maneuvering limitations. NASA s analysis suggests that with the appropriate flight procedures, these aircraft will provide a powerful set of tools to fight wildfires.

Dickerson, Mark↗

NASA NTRS2012

Space Suit Joint Torque Measurement Method Validation

In 2009 and early 2010, a test method was developed and performed to quantify the torque required to manipulate joints in several existing operational and prototype space suits. This was done in an effort to develop joint torque requirements appropriate for a new Constellation Program space suit system. The same test method was levied on the Constellation space suit contractors to verify that their suit design met the requirements. However, because the original test was set up and conducted by a single test operator there was some question as to whether this method was repeatable enough to be considered a standard verification method for Constellation or other future development programs. In order to validate the method itself, a representative subset of the previous test was repeated, using the same information that would be available to space suit contractors, but set up and conducted by someone not familiar with the previous test. The resultant data was compared using graphical and statistical analysis; the results indicated a significant variance in values reported for a subset of the re-tested joints. Potential variables that could have affected the data were identified and a third round of testing was conducted in an attempt to eliminate and/or quantify the effects of these variables. The results of the third test effort will be used to determine whether or not the proposed joint torque methodology can be applied to future space suit development contracts.

Valish, Dana↗

NASA NTRS2013

Mars Sample Return Using Commercial Capabilities: Mission Architecture Overview

Mars Sample Return (MSR) is the highest priority science mission for the next decade as recommended by the recent Decadal Survey of Planetary Science. This paper presents an overview of a feasibility study for a MSR mission. The objective of the study was to determine whether emerging commercial capabilities can be used to reduce the number of mission systems and launches required to return the samples, with the goal of reducing mission cost. The major element required for the MSR mission are described and include an integration of the emerging commercial capabilities with small spacecraft design techniques; new utilizations of traditional aerospace technologies; and recent technological developments. We report the feasibility of a complete and closed MSR mission design using the following scenario that covers three synodic launch opportunities, beginning with the 2022 opportunity: A Falcon Heavy injects a SpaceX Red Dragon capsule and trunk onto a Trans Mars Injection (TMI) trajectory. The capsule is modified to carry all the hardware needed to return samples collected on Mars including a Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV); an Earth Return Vehicle (ERV); and hardware to transfer a sample collected in a previously landed rover mission to the ERV. The Red Dragon descends to land on the surface of Mars using Supersonic Retro Propulsion (SRP). After previously collected samples are transferred to the ERV, the single-stage MAV launches the ERV from the surface of Mars to a Mars phasing orbit. The MAV uses a storable liquid, pump fed bi-propellant propulsion system. After a brief phasing period, the ERV, which also uses a storable bi-propellant system, performs a Trans Earth Injection (TEI) burn. Once near Earth the ERV performs Earth and lunar swing-bys and is placed into a Lunar Trailing Orbit (LTO0 - an Earth orbit, at lunar distance. A later mission, using a Dragon and launched by a Falcon Heavy, performs a rendezvous with the ERV in the lunar trailing orbit, retrieves the sample container and breaks the chain of contact with Mars by transferring the sample into a sterile and secure container. With the sample contained, the retrieving spacecraft, makes a controlled Earth re-entry preventing any unintended release of pristine Martian materials into the Earth's biosphere. Other capsule type vehicles and associated launchers may be applicable. The analysis methods employed standard and specialized aerospace engineering tools. Mission system elements were analyzed with either direct techniques or by using parametric mass estimating relationships (MERs). The architecture was iterated until overall mission convergence was achieved on at least one path. Subsystems analyzed in this study include support structures, power system, nose fairing, thermal insulation, actuation devices, MAV exhaust venting, and GN&C. Best practice application of loads, mass growth contingencies, and resource margins were used. For Falcon Heavy capabilities and Dragon subsystems we utilized publically available data from SpaceX; published analyses from other sources; as well as our own engineering and aerodynamic estimates. Earth Launch mass is under 11 mt, which is within the estimated capability of a Falcon Heavy, with margin. Total entry masses between 7 and 10 mt were considered with closure occurring between 9 and 10 mt. Propellant mass fractions for each major phase of the EDL - Entry, Terminal Descent, and Hazard Avoidance - have been derived. An assessment of the entry conditions on the thermal protection system (TPS), currently in use for Dragon missions, has been made. And shows no significant stressors. A useful mass of 2.0 mt is provided and includes mass growth allowances for the MAV, the ERV, and mission unique equipment. We also report on alternate propellant options for the MAV and options for the ERV, including propulsion systems; crewed versus robotic retrieval mission; as well as direct Earth entry. International Planetary Protection Policies as well as verifiable means of compliance will have a large impact on any MSR mission design. We identify areas within our architecture where such impacts occur. This work shows that emerging commercial capabilities can be used to effectively integrated into a mission to achieve an important planetary science objective.

Mars Sample Return↗

NASA NTRS2006

Space Human Factors Engineering Gap Analysis Project Final Report

Humans perform critical functions throughout each phase of every space mission, beginning with the mission concept and continuing to post-mission analysis (Life Sciences Division, 1996). Space missions present humans with many challenges - the microgravity environment, relative isolation, and inherent dangers of the mission all present unique issues. As mission duration and distance from Earth increases, in-flight crew autonomy will increase along with increased complexity. As efforts for exploring the moon and Mars advance, there is a need for space human factors research and technology development to play a significant role in both on-orbit human-system interaction, as well as the development of mission requirements and needs before and after the mission. As part of the Space Human Factors Engineering (SHFE) Project within the Human Research Program (HRP), a six-month Gap Analysis Project (GAP) was funded to identify any human factors research gaps or knowledge needs. The overall aim of the project was to review the current state of human factors topic areas and requirements to determine what data, processes, or tools are needed to aid in the planning and development of future exploration missions, and also to prioritize proposals for future research and technology development.

Hudy, Cynthia↗

NASA NTRS2000

STEP Tether Dynamics Preliminary Analysis

The General Tethered Object Simulation System (GTOSS) has been successfully converted to the PC environment. GTOSS has been run under Microsoft Windows 95, 98 and NT4.0 with no problems noted. Adaptation to the PC environment and definition of the 3 three body configuration required resizing some of the GTOSS internal data arrays. To allow studies of the tether dynamics accompanying electrodynamic thrust, a tether current flow model has also been developed for GTOSS. This model includes effects due to the earth's magnetic field and ionosphere, tether conductivity, temperature, motion, shape and available power. Sample cases have been defined for a proposed STEP-AIRSEDS (Space Transfer using Electrodynamic Propulsion-The Michigan Technic Corporation proposed tether missions for commercial applications) three body configuration. This required definition of a 6th power scenario for GTOSS. This power scenario allows a user to specify whether orbit raising or orbit lowering is to be performed by selecting the number of the tether. Orbit raising and orbit lowering sample cases have been run successfully. Results from these runs have been included in this report. Results have only been generated so far for a three body configuration. Only point end masses have been represented. No attitude dynamics have been included. Initial results suggest that tether current can have significant and detrimental effects on tether dynamics and provisions will have to be made for control of it. This control will have to be considered in connection with desired target orbits for electrodynamic thrusting, as well as end body attitude control, momentum management of proposed control moment gyros, solar array pointing. All of these items will interact and thus, any system simulation will have to have each of these effects modeled in sufficient detail to display these interactions.

Glaese, John R.↗

NASA NTRS1996

Materials Assessment of Components of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit

Current research interests for Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) design and development are directed toward enhancements of the Shuttle EMU, implementation of the Mark 3 technology for Shuttle applications, and development of a next generation suit (the X suit) which has applications for prolonged space flight, longer extravehicular activity (EVA), and Moon and Mars missions. In this research project two principal components of the EMU were studied from the vantage point of the materials and their design criteria. An investigation of the flexible materials which make up the lay-up of materials for abrasion and tear protection, thermal insulation, pressure restrain, etc. was initiated. A central focus was on the thermal insulation. A vacuum apparatus for measuring the flexibility of the materials was built to access their durability in vacuum. Plans are to include a Residual Gas Analyzer on the vacuum chamber to measure volatiles during the durability testing. These tests will more accurately simulate space conditions and provide information which has not been available on the materials currently used on the EMU. Durability testing of the aluminized mylar with a nylon scrim showed that the material strength varied in the machine and transverse directions. Study of components of the EMU also included a study of the EMU Bearing Assemblies as to materials selection, engineered materials, use of coatings and flammability issues. A comprehensive analysis of the performance of the current design, which is a stainless steel assembly, was conducted and use of titanium alloys or engineered alloy systems and coatings was investigated. The friction and wear properties are of interest as are the general manufacturing costs. Recognizing that the bearing assembly is subject to an oxygen environment, all currently used materials as well as titanium and engineered alloys were evaluated as to their flammability. An aim of the project is to provide weight reduction since bearing weights constitute 1/3 of the total EMU weight. Our investigations have shown favorable properties using a titanium or nickel base alloy in conjunction with a coating system. Interest lies in developing titanium as a more nonflammable material. Methodology for doing this lies in adding coatings and surface alloying the titanium. This report is brief and does not give all necessary details. The reader should contact the authors as to the detailed study and for viewing of raw data.

Olivas, John D.↗