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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS1990

Trace gas emissions from burning Florida wetlands

Measurements of biomass burn-produced trace gases were obtained using a helicopter at low altitudes above burning Florida wetlands on November 9, 1987, and from both helicopter and light-aircraft samplings on November 7, 1988. Carbon dioxide normalized emission ratios for carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, total nonmethane hydrocarbons, and nitrous oxide were obtained over burning graminoid wetlands consisting primarily of Spartina bakeri and Juncus roemerianus. Some interspersed scrub oak and saw palmetto were also burned. No significant differences were observed in the emission ratios determined for these gases from samples collected over flaming, mixed, and smoldering phases of combustion during the 1987 fire. Combustion-categorized differences in emission ratios were small for the 1988 fire. Combustion efficiency was relatively good (low emission ratios for reduced gases) for both fires. It is believed that the consistently low emission ratios were a unique result of graminoid wetlands fires, in which the grasses and rushes burned rapidly down to standing water and were quickly extinguished. Consequently, the efficiency of the combustion was good and the amount and duration of smoldering combustion was greatly deminished.

Cofer, Wesley R., III↗
DOE OSTI2022

An Assessment of Current Understanding of the Greenhouse Gas Impacts from H 2 Emissions

With the anticipated growth in hydrogen generation and use as part of a broad shift in energy use away from fossil fuels, concerns have been raised regarding the impact of increased H 2 emissions on global warming. Atmospheric scientists have long recognized that H 2 emissions into the atmosphere do have an indirect impact on global warming, largely because a portion of emitted H 2 is consumed by the hydroxyl radical (OH), which is the primary reactant that removes the potent greenhouse gas methane from the atmosphere. Therefore, increases in H 2 emissions will result in decreases in the average OH concentrations in the atmosphere and an increase in the atmospheric lifetime of methane. Various assessments of the impact of H 2 emissions on global warming have been performed over the past couple of decades. These assessments have yielded significant variability and recognized uncertainty in the magnitude of the warming effect of a given quantity of emitted H 2 , and an even greater uncertainty in the magnitude of H 2 leakage and releases that can be anticipated with an expanded H 2 infrastructure. Consequently, definitive estimates of the magnitude of the warming effect of additional emitted H 2 are lacking. However, given the current understanding of the warming potential of emitted H 2 and given reasonable expectations of the emission rate of an expanded H 2 infrastructure, it is anticipated that warming effects from emitted H 2 will offset no more than 5% of the reduction in warming associated with avoided CO 2 emissions from using clean H 2 . Further, it is highly unlikely that the warming effects from emitted H 2 will offset more than 10% of the benefit from avoided CO 2 emissions, at least as considered over a typical 100-year accounting period. Because of the short atmospheric lifetimes of H 2 and methane, however, the warming effect of emitted H 2 is enhanced over the first few years following increases in H 2 emission.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2012

On the Sources of Methane to the Los Angeles Atmosphere

We use historical and new atmospheric trace gas observations to refine the estimated source of methane (CH4) emitted into California's South Coast Air Basin (the larger Los Angeles metropolitan region). Referenced to the California Air Resources Board (CARB) CO emissions inventory, total CH4 emissions are 0.44 +/- 0.15 Tg each year. To investigate the possible contribution of fossil fuel emissions, we use ambient air observations of methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and carbon monoxide (CO), together with measured C2H6 to CH4 enhancement ratios in the Los Angeles natural gas supply. The observed atmospheric C2H6 to CH4 ratio during the ARCTAS (2008) and CalNex (2010) aircraft campaigns is similar to the ratio of these gases in the natural gas supplied to the basin during both these campaigns. Thus, at the upper limit (assuming that the only major source of atmospheric C2H6 is fugitive emissions from the natural gas infrastructure) these data are consistent with the attribution of most (0.39 +/- 0.15 Tg yr-1) of the excess CH4 in the basin to uncombusted losses from the natural gas system (approximately 2.5-6% of natural gas delivered to basin customers). However, there are other sources of C2H6 in the region. In particular, emissions of C2H6 (and CH4) from natural gas seeps as well as those associated with petroleum production, both of which are poorly known, will reduce the inferred contribution of the natural gas infrastructure to the total CH4 emissions, potentially significantly. This study highlights both the value and challenges associated with the use of ethane as a tracer for fugitive emissions from the natural gas production and distribution system.

Wennberg, Paul O.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Martian Methane From a Cometary Source: A Hypothesis

In recent years, methane in the martian atmosphere has been detected by Earth-based spectroscopy, the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer on the ESA Mars Express mission, and the NASA Mars Science Laboratory. The methane's origin remains a mystery, with proposed sources including volcanism, exogenous sources like impacts and interplanetary dust, aqueous alteration of olivine in the presence of carbonaceous material, release from ancient deposits of methane clathrates, and/or biological activity. An additional potential source exists: meteor showers from the emission of large comet dust particles could generate martian methane via UV pyrolysis of carbon-rich infall material. We find a correlation between the dates of Mars/cometary orbit encounters and detections of methane on Mars. We hypothesize that cometary debris falls onto Mars during these interactions, generating methane via UV photolysis.

Fries, M.↗
DOE OSTI2026

Contrasting carbon dynamics in grazed and flood-prone grasslands on mineral and degraded peat soils

Ecosystem-scale methane (CH₄) flux measurements from grazed grasslands remain scarce, despite their importance for understanding grassland contributions to the global carbon budget. In this study, we present full annual budgets of both carbon dioxide (CO₂) and CH₄ derived from eddy covariance measurements at two contrasting grazed grasslands: a floodplain grassland at Marchegg, Austria, and an intensively grazed pasture at Sherman Barn, California. By combining continuous, year-round observations of CO₂ and CH₄, this study provides a rare, comparative assessment of greenhouse gas dynamics across distinct climatic, hydrological, and management regimes. Our results highlight how environmental conditions, grazing intensity, and hydrology jointly regulate CO₂ exchange and CH₄ emissions, underscoring the importance of including methane alongside net ecosystem exchange when evaluating grassland carbon balances. At Marchegg, characterized by seasonal flooding and moderate horse grazing on mineral soils, the ecosystem acted as a weak carbon sink in 2024, with a GWP 100 of 42.2 ± 113.4 g CO₂ eq m⁻². Net CO₂ uptake (–27.3 ± 30.2 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹) was partly offset by CH₄ emissions (1.6 ± 0.04 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹), which were strongly linked to soil moisture and inundation events. In contrast, Sherman Barn, a cattle pasture on degraded peat soils, was a consistent carbon source in 2019, with a GWP 100 of 567.6 ± 120.5 g CO₂ eq m⁻², associated with high ecosystem respiration during summer. The site released 125.3 ± 32.2 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ of CO₂ and 3 ± 0.06 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ of CH₄. Across both sites, net ecosystem exchange was primarily linked to photosynthetically active radiation and vegetation greenness, while CH₄ fluxes were related to soil moisture rather than grazing intensity. Flooding at Marchegg reduced CO₂ uptake but enhanced CH₄ emissions, highlighting the critical role of flood timing within the growing season. Moreover, inundation appeared to suppress the spread of invasive plant species, emphasizing the ecological value of dynamic hydrological regimes. Together, these findings reveal the complexity of grassland carbon budgets and the need for site-specific, year-round CO₂ and CH₄ monitoring to inform climate-adaptive management strategies.

Carbon sequestration↗
DOE OSTI2025

Interactive Gas Chemistry for Enhanced Science Capabilities of the Energy Exascale Earth System Model Version 3

Atmospheric chemistry plays a crucial role in Earth system models (ESMs), controlling atmospheric composition and radiative balance; it is highly interactive with the physical climate, biogeochemical cycles, and human systems. However, it often imposes computational challenges in an ESM. Here we develop a full troposphere‐stratosphere interactive chemistry module for the US Department of Energy's Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM). We intentionally build a streamlined module based on E3SM version 2 that interacts with other components and maintains all of major chemical and chemistry‐climate feedbacks. The module incorporates a new, highly efficient tracer advection scheme; linearization of stratospheric chemistry; and abridged tropospheric chemical mechanism with 28 reactive tracers. This new model, E3SM‐chem, can readily perform century‐long climate simulations of ozone, methane, and nitrous oxide based on emission scenarios as well as provide hourly budgets for the gas‐phase radicals that drive aerosol chemistry. We evaluate E3SM‐chem with an atmosphere‐only simulation as in the recent climate model intercomparison project (CMIP6) finding results similar to the other CMIP6 models. For the present‐day, E3SM‐chem matches the standard measurement metrics for stratospheric and tropospheric ozone, surface air quality, other key reactive gases like carbon monoxide, and the methane lifetime. Overall, E3SM‐chem maintains the climate fidelity of the baseline model while adding at most 20% to the computational cost of the atmosphere model. Hence, interactive chemistry can be a default configuration for long climate simulations at resolutions of 1° or finer, which is crucial for producing self‐consistent chemistry‐climate feedbacks that alter the climate system.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Life-cycle analysis of hydrogen production from water electrolyzers

The United States' focus on decarbonization has spawned interest among policymakers in deploying water electrolysis technology for clean hydrogen production. However, water electrolyzers also raise concerns regarding their substantial use of carbon-intensive materials. Here, we conduct a comprehensive life-cycle analysis (LCA) of three prominent water electrolyzer technologies to investigate the environmental implications of their manufacturing and life cycles under different energy sources. All electrolyzer technologies employing low-carbon energy (nuclear, solar, or wind) exhibit life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of 0.3-2.4 kg-CO 2-eq /kg-H 2 . This is significantly lower than the corresponding GHG emissions for hydrogen production via both conventional steam methane reforming and alternative autothermal reforming with carbon capture and storage (by > 50%). The well-to-gate GHG emissions of low-carbon electrolyzers (0-0.36 kg-CO 2-eq / kg-H 2 ) qualify for Tier I of the production tax credit in the U.S.' Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, indicating their suitability for producing decarbonized hydrogen under this program.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Bioindicator “fingerprints” of methane-emitting thermokarst features in Alaskan soils

Permafrost thaw increases the bioavailability of ancient organic matter, facilitating microbial metabolism of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon dioxide, and methane (CH 4 ). The formation of thermokarst (thaw) lakes in icy, organic-rich Yedoma permafrost leads to high CH 4 emissions, and subsurface microbes that have the potential to be biogeochemical drivers of organic carbon turnover in these systems. However, to better characterize and quantify rates of permafrost changes, methods that further clarify the relationship between subsurface biogeochemical processes and microbial dynamics are needed. In this study, we investigated four sites (two well-drained thermokarst mounds, a drained thermokarst lake, and the terrestrial margin of a recently formed thermokarst lake) to determine whether biogenic VOCs (1) can be effectively collected during winter, and (2) whether winter sampling provides more biologically significant VOCs correlated with subsurface microbial metabolic potential. During the cold season (March 2023), we drilled boreholes at the four sites and collected cores to simultaneously characterize microbial populations and captured VOCs. VOC analysis of these sites revealed “fingerprints” that were distinct and unique to each site. Total VOCs from the boreholes included > 400 unique VOC features, including > 40 potentially biogenic VOCs related to microbial metabolism. Subsurface microbial community composition was distinct across sites; for example, methanogenic archaea were far more abundant at the thermokarst site characterized by high annual CH 4 emissions. The results obtained from this method strongly suggest that ∼10% of VOCs are potentially biogenic, and that biogenic VOCs can be mapped to subsurface microbial metabolisms. By better revealing the relationship between subsurface biogeochemical processes and microbial dynamics, this work advances our ability to monitor and predict subsurface carbon turnover in Arctic soils.

anaerobic degradation↗
NASA NTRS2016

New Approach to Characterize CO2 and CH4 Emissions over Sacramento, California Using an Airborne Aircraft Measurement

Emission fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) over Sacramento, California, USA, are estimated using an aircraft equipped with a cavity ring-down greenhouse gas sensor through the Alpha Jet Atmospheric eXperiment (AJAX). To better quantify the emission fluxes over the entire city and two small point sources within the area, we designed flights in a cylindrical pattern and computed the emission fluxes from 9 flights over all seasons using the Kriging method based on Gausss divergence theorem. The concentrations at the downwind side of Sacramento show somewhat persistent patterns among the 9 flights, but the magnitudes and locations of the fluxes vary depending on the individual weather conditions and seasonality on a given flight day. The net emission fluxes tend to be smaller in summer (July) than winter (November). Both trace gas mixing ratios as well as the wind speed and direction show high spatial variability both horizontally and vertically. The local maximum emission fluxes over a landfill and a rice field measured on July 29, 2015, were 2-3 times lower than the maximum measured over the entire city. These low emission fluxes suggest that not only the local source but also the transport of greenhouse gases due to diurnal and seasonal variation in winds have a strong effect on the CO2 and CH4 flux estimation of the both local emissions and city-size emissions. Our results highlight that the aircraft-based approach is effective and useful for capturing city-size emission fluxes and estimating the greenhouse gas emissions and its sources.

airborne↗
DOE OSTI2025

A review on advances in oxidative coupling of methane (OCM) for industrial use and prospects of CO 2 –H 2 O splitting integration

The discovery of shale gas reserves has encouraged the development of direct methods for methane conversion into valuable chemicals, offering an alternative to indirect approaches that involve an energy-intensive and intermittent syngas production step, leading to high CO 2 emissions. Amongst the direct methods, the oxidative coupling of methane (OCM) is a potential pathway to reduce CO 2 emissions and can produce commodity chemicals such as ethylene, a chemical regarded as central to the petrochemical industry. Even though OCM has been studied for over four decades, the technology still has not found commercial application. Amongst the challenges regarding industrial deployment of OCM, the most significant one is the requirement of a high ethylene yield of 30 % which is currently reported to be around 20 %. Moreover, the highly exothermic nature of the process and controlling the carbon selectivity over oxides of carbon (COx) is the heart of the problem. Numerous researchers have presented promising results in terms of catalysts, reactor designs and feeding strategies for OCM. However, due to lack of inclusiveness in the results, none of the combination of catalysts, reactors and system optimizations has been able to bring about its industrial viability. The current paper presents an extensive review of the noteworthy attempts to achieve industrial targets for OCM. Moreover, a comprehensive criteria is presented which highlights the desired end state for the industrial deployment of OCM technology. Furthermore, the criteria is based on literature survey and a comparison with industrially deployed ethylene production plants i.e., naphtha or ethane steam cracker plants. Finally, a novel integration technology is presented which includes a combination of OCM and CO 2 -H 2 O splitting in a chemical looping reactor design to enable efficient energy utilization and minimal heat losses to the environment.

CO2 Splitting↗
NASA NTRS2020

Climate and air quality impacts due to mitigation of non-methane near-term climate forcers

It is important to understand how future environmental policies will impact both climate change and air pollution. Although targeting near-term climate forcers (NTCFs), defined here as aerosols, tropospheric ozone, and precursor gases, should improve air quality, NTCF reductions will also impact climate. Prior assessments of the impact of NTCF mitigation on air quality and climate have been limited. This is related to the idealized nature of some prior studies, simplified treatment of aerosols and chemically reactive gases, as well as a lack of a sufficiently large number of models to quantify model diversity and robust responses. Here, we quantify the 2015–2055 climate and air quality effects of non-methane NTCFs using nine state-of-the-art chemistry–climate model simulations conducted for the Aerosol and Chemistry Model Intercomparison Project (AerChemMIP). Simulations are driven by two future scenarios featuring similar increases in greenhouse gases (GHGs) but with “weak” (SSP3-7.0) versus “strong” (SSP3-7.0-lowNTCF) levels of air quality control measures. As SSP3-7.0 lacks climate policy and has the highest levels of NTCFs, our results (e.g., surface warming) represent an upper bound. Unsurprisingly, we find significant improvements in air quality under NTCF mitigation (strong versus weak air quality controls). Surface fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) decrease by −2.2±0.32 µg m−3 and −4.6±0.88 ppb, respectively (changes quoted here are for the entire 2015–2055 time period; uncertainty represents the 95 % confidence interval), over global land surfaces, with larger reductions in some regions including south and southeast Asia. Non-methane NTCF mitigation, however, leads to additional climate change due to the removal of aerosol which causes a net warming effect, including global mean surface temperature and precipitation increases of 0.25±0.12 K and 0.03±0.012 mm d−1, respectively. Similarly, increases in extreme weather indices, including the hottest and wettest days, also occur. Regionally, the largest warming and wetting occurs over Asia, including central and north Asia (0.66±0.20 K and 0.03±0.02 mm d−1), south Asia (0.47±0.16 K and 0.17±0.09 mm d−1), and east Asia (0.46±0.20 K and 0.15±0.06 mm d−1). Relatively large warming and wetting of the Arctic also occur at 0.59±0.36 K and 0.04±0.02 mm d−1, respectively. Similar surface warming occurs in model simulations with aerosol-only mitigation, implying weak cooling due to ozone reductions. Our findings suggest that future policies that aggressively target non-methane NTCF reductions will improve air quality but will lead to additional surface warming, particularly in Asia and the Arctic. Policies that address other NTCFs including methane, as well as carbon dioxide emissions, must also be adopted to meet climate mitigation goals.

Climate↗
DOE OSTI2023

Microbial sensitivity to temperature and sulfate deposition modulates greenhouse gas emissions from peat soils

Abstract Peatlands are among the largest natural sources of atmospheric methane (CH 4 ) worldwide. Microbial processes play a key role in regulating CH 4 emissions from peatland ecosystems, yet the complex interplay between soil substrates and microbial communities in controlling CH 4 emissions as a function of global change remains unclear. Herein, we performed an integrated analysis of multi‐omics data sets to provide a comprehensive understanding of the molecular processes driving changes in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in peatland ecosystems with increasing temperature and sulfate deposition in a laboratory incubation study. We sought to first investigate how increasing temperatures (4, 21, and 35°C) impact soil microbiome–metabolome interactions; then explore the competition between methanogens and sulfate‐reducing bacteria (SRBs) with increasing sulfate concentrations at the optimum temperature for methanogenesis. Our results revealed that peat soil organic matter degradation, mediated by biotic and potentially abiotic processes, is the main driver of the increase in CO 2 production with temperature. In contrast, the decrease in CH 4 production at 35°C was linked to the absence of syntrophic communities and the potential inhibitory effect of phenols on methanogens. Elevated temperatures further induced the microbial communities to develop high growth yield and stress tolerator trait‐based strategies leading to a shift in their composition and function. On the other hand, SRBs were able to outcompete methanogens in the presence of non‐limiting sulfate concentrations at 21°C, thereby reducing CH 4 emissions. At higher sulfate concentrations, however, the prevalence of communities capable of producing sufficient low‐molecular‐weight carbon substrates for the coexistence of SRBs and methanogens was translated into elevated CH 4 emissions. The use of omics in this study enhanced our understanding of the structure and interactions among microbes with the abiotic components of the system that can be useful for mitigating GHG emissions from peatland ecosystems in the face of global change.

AminiTabrizi, Roya↗
DOE OSTI2023

Measurement, reporting and Verification (MRV) of non-CO 2 greenhouse gases: International Best Practices and Suggestions for China

Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) is a systematic approach to tracking and documenting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and emission reductions. MRV can be used across all sectors and for all GHGs to track emissions patterns, evaluate programs, and promote transparency. As methane and other short-lived climate pollutants become critical to mitigating near-term climate change impacts, MRV systems become critical in improving emission inventories; facilitating the development of climate change policies and targets, and tracking and demonstrating progress towards sustainable development. This report focuses on current sectoral issues – including the emerging roles for satellites and remote sensing technologies - and international best practices in MRV policies and programs for non-carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) GHGs including methane, nitrous oxide (N 2 O), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in specific sectors. Based on international best practices and a review of China’s current MRV system, we offer suggestions for a possible path forward for developing and implementing a stronger non-CO 2 MRV system.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Emissions and Flame Structure Assessment of Aeroengine Micromixing Injectors for Lean Direct Injection of Hydrogen and Hydrogen/Natural Gas Blends

Abstract The present study focuses on whether adapting low emissions liquid fuel injection concepts can be applied to gaseous mixtures. The goal is to develop an injector with specific geometric characteristics that will achieve the lowest emissions. This is conducted by evaluating emissions and flame diagnostics on a set of test hardware that has been developed for combustion of pure hydrogen and hydrogen/methane mixtures. The current test hardware adapts lean direct injection concepts from aeroengine injectors to a ground-based engine based on target flows associated with a Solar Turbines Industrial Engine gas turbine. A statistical test plan was developed to assess these geometric characteristics using a three level Box Behnken design. The test plan investigates the effect of injector flow splits, air swirl, fuel swirl, pressure drop, preheat temperature, fuel composition, and the adiabatic flame temperature on the flame structure and emissions performance. A total of 16 injectors were considered for a total of 688 test points for emission and imaging data. Emissions data were reported on a mass basis in ng/J and chemical reactor network analysis were conducted to further interpret emissions behavior. Images were also captured to analyze the flame structure features of interest including reaction volume, flame length, flame spread, and flame width. With these results, a predictive model for emissions was made to conclude the most optimal injector configuration is to have the highest level of air split (more volume of air through the injector plate versus the injector) and air swirl angle for both methane and hydrogen gas mixtures. The predictive emissions level for all of these cases were below 10 ng/J.

08 HYDROGEN↗
NASA NTRS2019

Quantification of CO2 and CH4 emissions over Sacramento, California, based on divergence theorem using aircraft measurements

Emission estimates of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) and the meteorological factors affecting them are investigated over Sacramento, California, using an aircraft equipped with a cavity ring-down greenhouse gas sensor as part of the Alpha Jet Atmospheric eXperiment (AJAX) project. To better constrain the emission fluxes, we designed flights in a cylindrical pattern and computed the emission fluxes from two flights using a kriging method and Gauss’s divergence theorem. Differences in wind treatment and assumptions about background concentrations affect the emission estimates by a factor of 1.5 to 7. The uncertainty is also impacted by meteorological conditions and distance from the emission sources. The vertical layer averaging affects the flux estimate, but the choice of raw wind or mass-balanced wind is more important than the thickness of the vertical averaging for massbalanced wind for both urban and local scales. The importance of vertical mass transfer for flux estimates is examined, and the difference in the total emission estimate with and without vertical mass transfer is found to be small, especially at the local scale. The total flux estimates accounting for the entire circumference are larger than those based solely on measurements made in the downwind region. This indicates that a closed-shape flight profile can better contain total emissions relative to a one-sided curtain flight because most cities have more than one point source and wind direction can change with time and altitude. To reduce the uncertainty of the emission estimate, it is important that the sampling strategy account not only for known source locations but also possible unidentified sources around the city. Our results highlight that aircraft-based measurements using a closed-shape flight pattern are an efficient and useful strategy for identifying emission sources and estimating local- and city-scale greenhouse gas emission fluxes.

Ju-Mee Ryoo↗
DOE OSTI2022

Characteristics of U.S. Energy Production using Nuclear Fission

When considering potential energy production technologies for the future, a critical consideration centers on the question of “how green” the technology is. Here, the word “green” implies that the technology has a zero or minimal impact on the public and environment while still providing benefits by way of electricity, heat, and other products such as hydrogen and water. And, these potential impacts must be considered over the lifecycle of the technology deployment, from design, construction, operation, and disposition. Ideally, a green energy technology would be net-zero (i.e., having no to almost negligible contribution) on five key elements: 1. Greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases such as ozone-depleting gases 2. Water consumption 3. Material resource consumption 4. Disposition of wastes 5. Public, flora, and fauna safety including deaths, health, and environmental impacts. Society would benefit from net-zero impacts of the five elements above while having low-cost energy. As society starts to replace fossil fuels in the energy mix, we need to consider the possible impacts of adopted technologies. We need a production approach that provides large quantities of energy while being safe, reliable, economical, and sustainable. In this report, we describe a variety of characteristics related to the five elements above to provide a fact-supported, science-based depiction of nuclear fission as an energy providing technology. By better understanding how fission power is nearly net-zero in the five elements above, we can position our thinking to align with the overarching goal to provide society with a low-impact energy source.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗