Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Acute Disease”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 55 records · Page 3
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2012

A Hypothesis on Biological Protection from Space Radiation Through the Use of New Therapeutic Gases as Medical Counter Measures

Radiation exposure to astronauts could be a significant obstacle for long duration manned space exploration because of current uncertainties regarding the extent of biological effects. Furthermore, concepts for protective shielding also pose a technically challenging issue due to the nature of cosmic radiation and current mass and power constraints with modern exploration technology. The concern regarding exposure to cosmic radiation is the biological damage it induces. As damage is associated with increased oxidative stress, it is important and would be enabling to mitigate and/or prevent oxidative stress prior to the development of clinical symptoms and disease. This paper hypothesizes a "systems biology" approach in which a combination of chemical and biological mitigation techniques are used conjunctively. It proposes using new, therapeutic, medical gases as both chemical radioprotectors for radical scavenging and biological signaling molecules for management of the body s response to exposure. From reviewing radiochemistry of water, biological effects of CO, H2, NO, and H2S gas, and mechanisms of radiation biology, it is concluded that this approach may have great therapeutic potential for radiation exposure. Furthermore, it also appears to have similar potential for curtailing the pathogenesis of other diseases in which oxidative stress has been implicated including cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic inflammatory disease, hypertension, ischemia/reperfusion injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, Parkinson s and Alzheimer s disease, cataracts, and aging.

Schoenfeld, Michael P.↗
NASA NTRS2011

A Hypothesis on Biological Protection from Space Radiation Through the Use of New Therapeutic Gases

Radiation exposure to astronauts could be a significant obstacle for long duration manned space exploration because of current uncertainties regarding the extent of biological effects. Furthermore, concepts for protective shielding also pose a technically challenging issue due to the nature of cosmic radiation and current mass and power constraints with modern exploration technology. The concern regarding exposure to cosmic radiation is the biological damage it induces. As damage is associated with increased oxidative stress, it is important and would be enabling to mitigate and/or prevent oxidative stress prior to the development of clinical symptoms and disease. This paper hypothesizes a "systems biology" approach in which a combination of chemical and biological mitigation techniques are used conjunctively. It proposes using new, therapeutic, medical gases as both chemical radioprotectors for radical scavenging and biological signaling molecules for management of the body s response to exposure. From reviewing radiochemistry of water, biological effects of CO, H2, NO, and H2S gas, and mechanisms of radiation biology, it is concluded that this approach may have great therapeutic potential for radiation exposure. Furthermore, it also appears to have similar potential for curtailing the pathogenesis of other diseases in which oxidative stress has been implicated including cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic inflammatory disease, hypertension, ischemia/reperfusion injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, Parkinson s and Alzheimer s disease, cataracts, and aging.

Schoenfeld, Michael P.↗
NASA NTRS2011

A Hypothesis on Biological Protection from Space Radiation Through the Use of New Therapeutic Gases as Medical Counter Measures

Exposure to astronauts could be a significant obstacle for long duration manned space exploration because of current uncertainties regarding the extent of biological effects. Furthermore, concepts for protective shielding also pose a technically challenging issue due to the nature of cosmic radiation and current mass and power constraints with modern exploration technology. As biological damage from exposure is associated with increased oxidative stress, it would be enabling to mitigate and/or prevent stress prior to the development of clinical symptoms and disease. This paper hypothesizes a "systems biology" approach in which a combination of chemical and biological mitigation techniques are used conjunctively. It proposes using new, therapeutic, medical gases as both chemical radioprotectors for radical scavenging and biological promoters for management of the body s response to exposure. From reviewing radiochemistry of water, biological effects of CO, H2, NO, and H2S gas, and mechanisms of radiation biology, it is concluded that this approach may have great therapeutic potential for exposure. Furthermore, it also appears to have potential for curtailing the pathogenesis of other diseases in which oxidative stress has been implicated including cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic inflammatory disease, hypertension, ischemia/reperfusion injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, Parkinson s and Alzheimer s disease, cataracts, and aging.

Schoenfeld, Michael P.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Clinical utility of T-wave alternans

Electrical alternans represents a variation in the morphology of electrocardiographic complexes on an every-other-beat basis in an ABABAB... pattern. Apparent electrical alternans associated with pericardial effusion results from rotation of the heart in the pericardial sac, and not true alternation in electrical conduction patterns. In contrast, true electrical alternans results from an alternation in electrical conduction patterns in the heart itself. Repolarization alternans is true electrical alternans associated with the ST segment and T wave of the electrocardiogram (ECG). Here we will focus on T-wave alternans (TWA) and its association with susceptibility to ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Electrical alternans was reported in the literature as early as 1909. Historically, electrical alternans has been regarded as a fairly rare electrocardiographic abnormality. Case reports of electrical alternans have been associated with a variety of disease states, including acute ischemia, Prinzmetal's angina, a variety of electrolyte abnormalities, and the long QT syndrome. Interestingly, patients born with the prolonged QT syndrome have a very high incidence of sudden cardiac death at an early age. Schwartz and Malliani showed that patients with the prolonged QT syndrome who do not demonstrate alternans at rest, may evidence alternans during stress such as emotional excitement. Thus, over the years electrical alternans has been associated anecdotally with conditions associated with an increased risk of ventricular arrhythmias. In 1948, Kalter reviewed the world literature on electrical alternans and found a total of 41 reported cases. In addition, he reviewed clinical ectrocardiograms from 6059 patients and found five new cases (incidence of less than 1 in 1000 patients). Interestingly, he found a very high mortality, 62%, associated with this condition. Despite the clinical associations reported in the literature, the consensus view of electrical alternans until recent years has been that alternans is an electrocardiographic curiosity rarely encountered in clinical practice which, when identified, does not have specific clinical significance.

Review, Tutorial↗
DOE OSTI2022

Microcystin-LR aerosol induces inflammatory responses in healthy human primary airway epithelium

Harmful algal blooms plague bodies of freshwater globally. These blooms are often composed of outgrowths of cyanobacteria capable of producing the heptapeptide Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) which is a well-known hepatotoxin. Recently, MC-LR has been detected in aerosols generated from lake water. However, the risk for human health effects due to MC-LR inhalation exposure have not been extensively investigated. In this study, we exposed a fully differentiated 3D human airway epithelium derived from 14 healthy donors to MC-LR-containing aerosol for 3 minutes per day for 3 days. Concentrations of MC-LR ranged from 100 pM to 1 µM. Although there were little to no detrimental alterations in measures of the airway epithelial function (i.e. cell survival, tissue integrity, mucociliary clearance, or cilia beating frequency), a distinct shift in the transcriptional activity was found. Genes related to inflammation were found to be upregulated such as C-C motif chemokine 5 (CCL5; log2FC = 0.56 , p = 0.02) and C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7; log2FC = 0.83, p = 0.03). Functionally, conditioned media from MC-LR exposed airway epithelium was also found to have significant chemo-attractive properties for primary human neutrophils. Additionally, increases were found in the concentration of secreted chemokine proteins in the conditioned media such as CCL1 (log2FC = 5.07 , p = 0.0001) and CCL5 (log2FC = 1.02, p = 0.046). These results suggest that MC-LR exposure to the human airway epithelium is capable of inducing an inflammatory response that may potentiate acute or chronic disease.

3D human airway epithelium↗
DOE OSTI2021

A Novel Glutathione S-Transferase Gtt2 Class (VpGSTT2) Is Found in the Genome of the AHPND/EMS Vibrio parahaemolyticus Shrimp Pathogen

Glutathione S-transferases are a family of detoxifying enzymes that catalyze the conjugation of reduced glutathione (GSH) with different xenobiotic compounds using either Ser, Tyr, or Cys as a primary catalytic residue. We identified a novel GST in the genome of the shrimp pathogen V. parahaemolyticus FIM- S1708+, a bacterial strain associated with Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND)/Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS) in cultured shrimp. This new GST class was named Gtt2. It has an atypical catalytic mechanism in which a water molecule instead of Ser, Tyr, or Cys activates the sulfhydryl group of GSH. The biochemical properties of Gtt2 from Vibrio parahaemolyticus (VpGSTT2) were characterized using kinetic and crystallographic methods. Recombinant VpGSTT2 was enzymatically active using GSH and CDNB as substrates, with a specific activity of 5.7 units/mg. Low affinity for substrates was demonstrated using both Michaelis–Menten kinetics and isothermal titration calorimetry. The crystal structure showed a canonical two-domain structure comprising a glutathione binding G-domain and a hydrophobic ligand H domain. A water molecule was hydrogen-bonded to residues Thr9 and Ser 11, as reported for the yeast Gtt2, suggesting a primary role in the reaction. Molecular docking showed that GSH could bind at the G-site in the vicinity of Ser11. G-site mutationsT9A and S11A were analyzed. S11A retained 30% activity, while T9A/S11A showed no detectable activity. VpGSTT2 was the first bacterial Gtt2 characterized, in which residues Ser11 and Thr9 coordinated a water molecule as part of a catalytic mechanism that was characteristic of yeast GTT2. The GTT2 family has been shown to provide protection against metal toxicity; in some cases, excess heavy metals appear in shrimp ponds presenting AHPND/EMS. Further studies may address whether GTT2 in V. parahaemolyticus pathogenic strains may provide a competitive advantage as a novel detoxification mechanism.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2010

Next Generation Respiratory Viral Vaccine System: Advanced and Emerging Bioengineered Human Lung Epithelia Model (HLEM) Organoid Technology

Acute respiratory infections, including pneumonia and influenza, are the S t" leading cause of United States and worldwide deaths. Newly emerging pathogens signaled the need for an advanced generation of vaccine technology.. Human bronchial-tracheal epithelial tissue was bioengineered to detect, identify, host and study the pathogenesis of acute respiratory viral disease. The 3-dimensional (3D) human lung epithelio-mesechymal tissue-like assemblies (HLEM TLAs) share characteristics with human respiratory epithelium: tight junctions, desmosomes, microvilli, functional markers villin, keratins and production of tissue mucin. Respiratory Syntial Virus (RSV) studies demonstrate viral growth kinetics and membrane bound glycoproteins up to day 20 post infection in the human lung-orgainoid infected cell system. Peak replication of RSV occurred on day 10 at 7 log10 particles forming units per ml/day. HLEM is an advanced virus vaccine model and biosentinel system for emergent viral infectious diseases to support DoD global surveillance and military readiness.

Goodwin, Thomas J.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Modeling Influenza Transmission Using Environmental Parameters

Influenza is an acute viral respiratory disease that has significant mortality, morbidity and economic burden worldwide. It infects approximately 5-15% of the world population, and causes 250,000 500,000 deaths each year. The role of environments on influenza is often drawn upon the latitude variability of influenza seasonality pattern. In regions with temperate climate, influenza epidemics exhibit clear seasonal pattern that peak during winter months, but it is not as evident in the tropics. Toward this end, we developed mathematical model and forecasting capabilities for influenza in regions characterized by warm climate Hong Kong (China) and Maricopa County (Arizona, USA). The best model for Hong Kong uses Land Surface Temperature (LST), precipitation and relative humidity as its covariates. Whereas for Maricopa County, we found that weekly influenza cases can be best modelled using mean air temperature as its covariates. Our forecasts can further guides public health organizations in targeting influenza prevention and control measures such as vaccination.

Soebiyanto, Radina P.↗
NASA NTRS2022

Global Premature Mortality By Dust and Pollution PM 2.5 Estimated From Aerosol Reanalysis of the Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2

This study quantifies global premature deaths attributable to long-term exposure of ambient PM 2.5 , or PM 2.5 -attributable mortality, by dust and pollution sources. We used NASA’s Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2) aerosol reanalysis product for PM 2.5 and the cause-specific relative risk (RR) from the integrated exposure-response (IER) model to estimate global PM2.5-attributable mortality for five causes of deaths, namely ischaemic heart disease (IHD), cerebrovascular disease (CEV) or stroke, lung cancer (LC), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI). The estimated yearly global PM 2.5 -attributable mortality in 2019 amounts to 2.89 (1.38–4.48) millions, which is composed of 1.19 (0.73–1.84) million from IHD, 1.01 (0.35–1.55) million from CEV, 0.29 (0.11–0.48) million from COPD, 0.23 (0.14–0.33) million from ALRI, and 0.17 (0.04–0.28) million from LC (the numbers in parentheses represent the estimated mortality range due corresponding to RR spread at the 95% confidence interval). The mortality counts vary with geopolitical regions substantially, with the highest number of deaths occurring in Asia. China and India account for 40% and 23% of the global PM 2.5 -attributable deaths, respectively. In terms of sources of PM 2.5 , about 22% of the global all-cause PM 2.5 -attributable deaths are caused by desert dust. The largest dust attribution is 37% for ALRI. The relative contributions of dust and pollution sources vary with the causes of deaths and geographical regions. Enforcing air pollution regulations to transfer areas from PM 2.5 nonattainment to PM2.5 attainment can have great health benefits. Being attainable with the United States air quality standard (AQS) of 15 μg/m 3 globally would have avoided nearly 40% or 1.2 million premature deaths. The most recent update of PM 2.5 guideline from 10 to 5 μg/m 3 by the World Health Organization (WHO) would potentially save additional one million lives. Our study highlights the importance of distinguishing aerodynamic size from geometric size in accurately assessing the global health burden of PM 2.5 and particularly for dust. A use of geometric size in diagnosing dust PM 2.5 from the model simulation, a common approach in current health burden assessment, could overestimate the PM 2.5 level in the dust belt by 40–170%, leading to an overestimate of global all-cause mortality by 1 million or 32%.

PM2.5↗
DOE OSTI2021

Crosstalk between cyclophilins and T lymphocytes in coronary artery disease

Highlights: • CD147 receptor expression is elevated in T lymphocytes from CAD patients. • Intracellular CypA and B expression are augmented in T lymphocytes from CAD patients. • CypA, B and C, and IL-1β and IL-6 serum levels are increased in patients with CAD. • CypA and B levels in T lymphocytes are correlated with CypA and B serum levels, respectively. Cardiovascular diseases and atherosclerosis are currently some of the most widespread diseases of our time. Within cardiovascular disease, coronary artery disease and underlying atherosclerosis were recently linked with systemic and local inflammation. Cyclophilins participate in the initiation and progression of these inflammatory-related diseases. Cyclophilins are released into the extracellular space upon inflammatory stimuli and participate in the pathology of cardiovascular diseases. The cell surface receptor for extracellular cyclophilins, the CD147 receptor, also contributes to coronary artery disease pathogenesis. Nevertheless, the physiological relevance of cyclophilin's family and their receptor in cardiovascular diseases remains unclear. The present study aimed to better understand the role of cyclophilins in cardiovascular artery disease and their relationship with inflammation. Hence, cyclophilins and pro-inflammatory interleukins were measured in the serum of 30 subjects (divided into three groups according to coronary artery disease status: 10 patients with acute coronary syndrome, 10 patients with chronic coronary artery disease, and 10 control volunteers). In addition, cyclophilin levels and CD147 receptor expression were measured in T lymphocytes purified from these subjects. Cyclophilin A, B, and C, pro-inflammatory interleukins, and CD147 membrane expression were significantly elevated in patients with coronary artery disease.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Drug-induced kidney injury: challenges and opportunities

Abstract Drug-induced kidney injury (DIKI) is a frequently reported adverse event, associated with acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, and end-stage renal failure. Prospective cohort studies on acute injuries suggest a frequency of around 14%–26% in adult populations and a significant concern in pediatrics with a frequency of 16% being attributed to a drug. In drug discovery and development, renal injury accounts for 8 and 9% of preclinical and clinical failures, respectively, impacting multiple therapeutic areas. Currently, the standard biomarkers for identifying DIKI are serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen. However, both markers lack the sensitivity and specificity to detect nephrotoxicity prior to a significant loss of renal function. Consequently, there is a pressing need for the development of alternative methods to reliably predict drug-induced kidney injury (DIKI) in early drug discovery. In this article, we discuss various aspects of DIKI and how it is assessed in preclinical models and in the clinical setting, including the challenges posed by translating animal data to humans. We then examine the urinary biomarkers accepted by both the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency for monitoring DIKI in preclinical studies and on a case-by-case basis in clinical trials. We also review new approach methodologies (NAMs) and how they may assist in developing novel biomarkers for DIKI that can be used earlier in drug discovery and development.

Connor, Skylar (ORCID:0000000233479180)↗
NASA NTRS2000

Transesophageal echocardiography: first-line imaging for aortic diseases

Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is now commonly used to evaluate the thoracic aorta, because it is widely available and provides high-resolution images and flow information by Doppler. This article reviews the essential features on TEE of acute and chronic aortic diseases, such as aortic dissection, aneurysm, and atherosclerosis, and discusses its strengths, weaknesses, and indications.

NASA Program Biomedical Research and Countermeasur↗
NASA NTRS2014

Space Radiation and Risks to Human Health

The radiation environment in space poses significant challenges to human health and is a major concern for long duration manned space missions. Outside the Earth's protective magnetosphere, astronauts are exposed to higher levels of galactic cosmic rays, whose physical characteristics are distinct from terrestrial sources of radiation such as x‐rays and gamma‐rays. Galactic cosmic rays consist of high energy and high mass nuclei as well as high energy protons; they impart unique biological damage as they traverse through tissue with impacts on human health that are largely unknown. The major health issues of concern are the risks of radiation carcinogenesis, acute and late decrements to the central nervous system, degenerative tissue effects such as cardiovascular disease, as well as possible acute radiation syndromes due to an unshielded exposure to a large solar particle event. The NASA Human Research Program's Space Radiation Program Element is focused on characterization and mitigation of these space radiation health risks along with understanding these risks in context of the other biological stressors found in the space environment. In this overview, we will provide a description of these health risks and the Element's research strategies to understand and mitigate these risks.

Huff, Janice L.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Space Radiation and Risks to Human Health

The radiation environment in space poses significant challenges to human health and is a major concern for long duration manned space missions. Outside the Earth's protective magnetosphere, astronauts are exposed to higher levels of galactic cosmic rays, whose physical characteristics are distinct from terrestrial sources of radiation such as x‐rays and gamma‐rays. Galactic cosmic rays consist of high energy and high mass nuclei as well as high energy protons; they impart unique biological damage as they traverse through tissue with impacts on human health that are largely unknown. The major health issues of concern are the risks of radiation carcinogenesis, acute and late decrements to the central nervous system, degenerative tissue effects such as cardiovascular disease, as well as possible acute radiation syndromes due to an unshielded exposure to a large solar particle event. The NASA Human Research Program's Space Radiation Program Element is focused on characterization and mitigation of these space radiation health risks along with understanding these risks in context of the other biological stressors found in the space environment. In this overview, we will provide a description of these health risks and the Element's research strategies to understand and mitigate these risks.

Huff, Janice L.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Near-Single-Cell Proteomics Profiling of the Proximal Tubular and Glomerulus of the Normal Human Kidney

Molecular assessments at the single-cell level can accelerate biological research by providing detailed assessments of cellular organization and tissue heterogeneity in both disease and health. The human kidney has complex multi-cellular states with varying functionality, much of which can now be completely harnessed with recent technological advances in tissue proteomics at a near single-cell level. We discuss the foundational steps in the first application of this mass spectrometry (MS) based proteomics method for analysis of sub-sections of the normal human kidney, as part of the Kidney Precision Medicine Project (KPMP). Using approximately 30-40 laser captured micro-dissected kidney cells, we identified more than 2500 human proteins, with specificity to the proximal tubular (PT; n=25 proteins) and glomerular (Glom; n=67 proteins) regions of the kidney and their unique metabolic functions. This pilot study provides the roadmap for application of our near-single-cell proteomics workflow for the analysis of other renal micro-compartments, on a larger scale, to unravel perturbations of renal sub-cellular function in the normal kidney as well as different etiologies of acute and chronic kidney disease.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Impacts of Vaccination and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Variants Alpha and Delta on Coronavirus Disease 2019 Transmission Dynamics in Four Metropolitan Areas of the United States

To characterize Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) transmission dynamics in each of the metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) surrounding Dallas, Houston, New York City, and Phoenix in 2020 and 2021, we extended a previously reported compartmental model accounting for effects of multiple distinct periods of non-pharmaceutical interventions by adding consideration of vaccination and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants Alpha (lineage B.1.1.7) and Delta (lineage B.1.617.2). For each MSA, we found region-specific parameterizations of the model using daily reports of new COVID-19 cases available from January 21, 2020 to October 31, 2021. In the process, we obtained estimates of the relative infectiousness of Alpha and Delta as well as their takeoff times in each MSA (the times at which sustained transmission began). The estimated infectiousness of Alpha ranged from 1.1x to 1.4x that of viral strains circulating in 2020 and early 2021. The estimated relative infectiousness of Delta was higher in all cases, ranging from 1.6x to 2.1x. The estimated Alpha takeoff times ranged from February 1 to February 28, 2021. The estimated Delta takeoff times ranged from June 2 to June 26, 2021. In conclusion, estimated takeoff times are consistent with genomic surveillance data.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Models and Processes to Extract Drug-like Molecules From Natural Language Text

Researchers worldwide are seeking to repurpose existing drugs or discover new drugs to counter the disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). A promising source of candidates for such studies is molecules that have been reported in the scientific literature to be drug-like in the context of viral research. However, this literature is too large for human review and features unusual vocabularies for which existing named entity recognition (NER) models are ineffective. We report here on a project that leverages both human and artificial intelligence to detect references to such molecules in free text. We present 1) a iterative model-in-the-loop method that makes judicious use of scarce human expertise in generating training data for a NER model, and 2) the application and evaluation of this method to the problem of identifying drug-like molecules in the COVID-19 Open Research Dataset Challenge (CORD-19) corpus of 198,875 papers. We show that by repeatedly presenting human labelers only with samples for which an evolving NER model is uncertain, our human-machine hybrid pipeline requires only modest amounts of non-expert human labeling time (tens of hours to label 1778 samples) to generate an NER model with an F-1 score of 80.5%—on par with that of non-expert humans—and when applied to CORD’19, identifies 10,912 putative drug-like molecules. This enriched the computational screening team’s targets by 3,591 molecules, of which 18 ranked in the top 0.1% of all 6.6 million molecules screened for docking against the 3CLPro protein.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Structure of SARS-CoV-2 ORF8, a rapidly evolving immune evasion protein

The molecular basis for the severity and rapid spread of the COVID-19 disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is largely unknown. ORF8 is a rapidly evolving accessory protein that has been proposed to interfere with immune responses. The crystal structure of SARS-CoV-2 ORF8 was determined at 2.04-Å resolution by X-ray crystallography. The structure reveals a ~60-residue core similar to SARS-CoV-2 ORF7a, with the addition of two dimerization interfaces unique to SARS-CoV-2 ORF8. A covalent disulfide-linked dimer is formed through an N-terminal sequence specific to SARS-CoV-2, while a separate noncovalent interface is formed by another SARS-CoV-2-specific sequence, 73 YIDI 76 . Together, the presence of these interfaces shows how SARS-CoV-2 ORF8 can form unique large-scale assemblies not possible for SARS-CoV, potentially mediating unique immune suppression and evasion activities.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗