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DOE OSTI2022

Edge states of α-bismuthene nanostructures

We present a systematic investigation of the edge states (ESs) of two-dimensional α-bismuthene (α-Bi) structures self-assembled on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite substrates, using scanning tunnelling microscopy and scanning tunnelling spectroscopy. The measurements are carried out for 3ML, 5ML and 7ML thick Bi structures. Our spectroscopy studies reveal clear features at the edges of the 5ML and 7ML thick structures, and the positions of the ESs coincide with the topographical step edges. In contrast, in 3ML structures the ESs appear to be absent and instead new states are sometimes observed, far from the topographical edge. These states are associated with a moiré pattern and result from strain-induced modulation of the topology. Our observations demonstrate the impact on the ESs of coupling to adjacent structures.

2D materials↗

DOE OSTI2021

Impact of Uncertainty on Energy Storage Operation Decisions: Motivation and Framework

Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) are gaining great attention, as they can help operate grid power grids more reliably. The ESS acquisition and operation is motivated by the economics revolving around its provided services and revenue streams. These economics are greatly impacted by uncertainties in predicting the parameters which influence the ESS operation. The main goal of this paper is in addressing these uncertainties. We organize sources of uncertainties which directly impact the value-driven operation of the ESS and propose a framework which combines the uncertain requirements from processes both internal and external to ESS.

Hanif, Sarmad↗

DOE OSTI2020

Renewable Integration in Hybrid ac-dc Systems using Multi-port Autonomous Reconfigurable Solar power plant (MARS)

To increase inertia and improve primary frequency response of future grids, grid-forming inverters connecting PV to grid and energy storage systems (ESSs) are likely to play an important role. Moreover, high-voltage direct current (HVdc) links will also be an enabler to transfer remote PV generation and for improved grid stability. That is, with increased penetration of PV, discrete development of PV and ESS connecting to transmission ac grid and HVdc links is one of the solutions for stable operation of grid. Here, an integrated concept for integration of PV and ESS to transmission ac grid and HVdc links is proposed that is named as multi-port autonomous reconfigurable solar power plant (MARS). The proposed integrated development reduces the cost associated with respect to discrete development of PV-ESS systems connecting to transmission ac grid and HVdc links. The integrated development incorporates advanced control methods to provide inertial and primary frequency response, reactive power support, and transient stability to manage PV and ESS resources. In this paper, high-fidelity switched system model of the integrated system and grids are developed and detailed simulation results are provided to showcase the stable operation of the integrated system and provision of grid support functions.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Convex Relaxation of Grid-Connected Energy Storage System Models With Complementarity Constraints in DC OPF

Including complementarity constraints in energy storage system (ESS) models in optimization problems ensure an optimal solution will not produce a physically unrealizable control strategy where there is simultaneous charging and discharging. However, the current approaches to impose complementarity constraints require the use of non-convex optimization methods. Here, we propose a convex relaxation for a common ESS model that has terms for both charging and discharging based on a penalty reformulation for use in a model predictive control (MPC) based optimal power flow (DC OPF) problem. In this approach, the complementarity constraints are omitted and a penalty term is added to the optimization objective function. For the DC OPF problem, we provide analysis for the conditions under which the convex relaxation of the complementarity constraint ensures that a solution with simultaneous ESS charging and discharging operation is suboptimal. Simulation results demonstrating ESS behavior with and without the penalty reformulation are provided for an MPC-based DC OPF problem on multiple IEEE test systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2026

The UCAR Africa Initiative: Recent insights, challenges, and opportunities to foster collaborative research for environmental sustainability

Africa is increasingly being exposed to the negative impacts of climate and environmental change, while having less capacity to respond compared to other continents. The vulnerability partially results from unprecedented demographic growth, urbanization, and industrialization. However, the continent has still largely been underserved by the broader Earth System Science (ESS) community, as evidenced by the limited amount of ESS data and research that cover Africa compared to other areas of the world. Here we present the recent University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) Africa Initiative that aims to enhance environmental sustainability in Africa by fostering international collaborative research partnerships co-led by African scientists. Specifically, we outline urgent challenges and opportunities identified through an international workshop in six areas of ESS namely (1) air quality and health, (2) weather, (3) climate, (4) land and water, (5) social science perspectives, and (6) developing equitable collaboration and sustainable infrastructure. We highlight examples of successful partnerships and conclude with recommendations to advance collaborative, actionable ESS research that addresses Africa’s critical environmental challenges.

African weather and land variability↗

DOE OSTI2023

Energy Storage and Decarbonization Analysis for Energy Regulators: Technical Analysis for the Illinois Commerce Commission

Jurisdictions around the world are enacting and enforcing an increasing number of policies to fight climate change, leading to higher penetration of variable renewable energy (VRE) and energy storage systems (ESSs) in the power grid. One of the biggest challenges associated with this process is the evaluation of the appropriate amount of ESS required to mitigate the variability of the VREs and achieve decarbonization goals of a particular jurisdiction. This report presents methodologies developed and results obtained for determining the minimum amount of ESS required to adequately serve load in a system where fossil fueled generators are being replaced by VREs over the next two decades. This technical analysis is performed by Sandia National Laboratories for the DOE Office of Electricity Energy Storage Program in collaboration with the Illinois Commerce Commission (ICC). The Illinois MISO Zone 4 is used as a case study. Several boundary conditions are investigated in this analysis including capacity adequacy and energy adequacy to determine the quantity of ESS required for MISO Zone 4. Multiple scenarios are designed and evaluated to incorporate the impact of varying capacity values of VREs and on the resource adequacy of the system. Several retirement scenarios involving fossil-fueled assets are also considered. Based on the current plans of new additions and retirements of generating assets, the results of the technical analysis indicate that Illinois MISO Zone 4 will require a significant quantity of ESS to satisfy their electricity demand over the next two decades.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2023

Considerations for Fire Service Response to Residential Battery Energy Storage System Incidents

Renewable energy sources (e.g., rooftop photovoltaics, wind turbines) are capable of addressing our grid-level energy challenges by reducing environmental impacts, increasing resiliency, and increasing the supply of input energy. However, renewable energy sources alone are not a complete solution. The generation of power from major renewable energy sources fluctuates with the weather, creating significant challenges in matching electrical power generation to electrical power consumption. The value of renewable power generation sources is multiplied when paired with battery energy storage systems (ESS), which can store excess power generated from renewable energy sources when it is not consumed and deliver that power later when demand exceeds base power generation. Residential ESS units are frequently installed to support renewable energy initiatives by storing energy from intermittent sources such as photovoltaic panels. Residential ESS units also offer an alternative to gas-powered generators or other backup power means. Lithium-ion batteries are the most common residential ESS technology due to their affordability and energy density. Though lithium-ion systems come with benefits, there is also a risk of thermal runaway within this technology which can result in flammable gas release, fire, and explosion. As the installations of these products increase, the frequency of response to fire incidents involving these products will increase. In response to this new and evolving hazard, UL Solutions (ULS) and UL Fire Safety Research Institute (FSRI) have partnered with the International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF) to conduct a series of large-scale tests sponsored by the US Department of Energy to characterize the challenges for fire fighters responding to fires involving residential energy storage systems. The project focuses on developing size-up and tactical considerations to support the fire service in navigating the evolving modern fireground.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2023

Control of energy storage to reduce electric power system off-nominal frequency deviations

A hybrid power generation system is formed by the combination of an energy storage system (ESS) and a rotating synchronous power generator (SPG). Energy is stored in or released from the ESS in response to measurements of the at least one angle parameter, selected from rotor, torque, or power angle of the SPG, to provide active frequency damping of electrical power output. The control of ESS energy exchange increases the stabilizing impact of the SPG inertia on the frequency of electricity in an electrical network or power grid. The hybrid power generation system can have an effective equal area criterion for stability limit that is greater than that of the SPG operating without the ESS. The hybrid power generation system can enable the electrical network to have a greater proportion of variable or distributed energy resource (DER) power generation systems without otherwise exceeding stability limits.

Vartanian, Charles K.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Particle physics at the European Spallation Source

Presently under construction in Lund, Sweden, the European Spallation Source (ESS) will be the world’s brightest neutron source. As such, it has the potential for a particle physics program with a unique reach and which is complementary to that available at other facilities. This paper describes proposed particle physics activities for the ESS. Furthermore, these encompass the exploitation of both the neutrons and neutrinos produced at the ESS for high precision (sensitivity) measurements (searches).

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗

DOE OSTI2025

The HIBEAM instrument at the European spallation source

The European spallation source (ESS) will be the world’s brightest neutron source and will open a new intensity frontier in particle physics. The HIBEAM collaboration aims to exploit the unique potential of the ESS with a dedicated ESS instrument for particle physics which offers world-leading capability in a number of areas. The HIBEAM program includes the first search in thirty years for free neutrons converting to antineutrons and searches for sterile neutrons, ultralight axion dark matter and nonzero neutron electric charge. This paper outlines the capabilities, design, infrastructure, and scientific potential of the HIBEAM program, including its dedicated beamline, neutron optical system, magnetic shielding and control, and detectors for neutrons and antineutrons. Additionally, we discuss the long-term scientific exploitation of HIBEAM, which may include measurements of the neutron electric dipole moment and precision studies of neutron decays.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2026

White Paper on Case Study of Safe Installation of Second-Life Energy Storage System

This technical report provides for a case study for the safe installation of a second-life, or repurposed, battery, that has been reconfigured for use as a stationary energy storage systems (ESS). Driven by legislative requirements such as California Senate Bill 615 and projections that retired EV batteries could meet a substantial portion of U.S. grid ESS needs beginning in 2035, the repurposing of EV batteries is anticipated to grow significantly. However, safety concerns arise from the effects of aging, unknown prior usage history, and changes in thermal runaway behavior, which may increase failure risks compared to new batteries. NFPA 855, the predominant U.S. standard for ESS installation, mandates that second-life batteries meet all requirements for new batteries, with repurposers complying with UL 1974 in addition to obtaining UL 9540 and UL 1973 listings. These are certifications that few repurposers have achieved and represent a regulatory barrier to entry for the market as a whole.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2026

Stream discharge and temperature data collected within the East and Taylor Watershed, Colorado for the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Watershed Function Science Focus Area (water years 2019 to 2025)

This dataset contains stream discharge and temperature data for water years 2019 to 2025 from the East and Taylor Watersheds in Colorado, United States. This data was collected to understand hydrological processes occurring in the East River and Taylor River Watersheds, Colorado, which is part of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Watershed Function Scientific Focus Area. Data includes instantaneous observed discharge using salt dilution and acoustic doppler velocimeter techniques, raw pressure transducer downloaded data, sub-hourly temperature as well as corrected water level and associated stream discharge and mean daily values. Notes on water level corrections, rating curve development and metadata provided. A rating curve is the translation of depth to streamflow. The rating curve can be used as a quantitative measure of the “quality of the data.” Data within this dataset is formatted using ESS-DIVE’s Hydrological Monitoring Reporting Format. This data package contains (1) a zip file (Stream_Discharge_Data_WY19-WY25.zip) containing stream discharge and temperature data organized by location; (2) an InstallationMethods file (InstallationMethods.csv) describing metadata about the installation; (3) a file-level metadata (flmd.csv) file that lists each file contained in the dataset with associated metadata; (4) a data dictionary (dd.csv) file that contains terms/column_headers used throughout the files along with a definition, units, and data type; (5) a locations metadata file (locations.csv); (6) and a sensor metadata file (sensors.csv). All data files are in non-proprietary formats (csv, png, or pdf formats). Please contact Rosemary Carroll, Curtis Beutler, or Austin Shirley for any support in accessing the files. Update on 2023-05-12: Additional data from WYs 2021 and 2022 were added. Additionally, the dataset was converted using ESS-DIVE’s Hydrological Monitoring Reporting Format. Data files were reformatted to match reporting format guidance, new metadata files were added, and files were converted from excel to CSV. Update on 2025-05-16: Additional data from WYs 2022 (for locations not previously included), 2023, and 2024 were added. An additional descriptive PDF (WFSFA_Streamflow_Hydrograph_Disclaimer.pdf) was added. Metadata files were updated to reflect the addition of new data and locations. Update on 2026-05-18: Additional data from WY 2025 were added, including a new location Upper Trail Creek (TR-TCG2). Metadata files were updated to reflect the addition of new data.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Using energy storage systems to extend the life of hydropower plants

Despite their advantages, distributed energy resources (DERs) bring inherent uncertainty and variability into the landscape of modern power systems. As DER penetration grows, conventional generators like hydropower plants have to respond more often to arrest the imbalance in the net load. Hydropower turbines provide their best operational performance with minimal wear and tear when operating at regions of maximum efficiency. However, the current needs for hydropower plants require them to operate under varying load conditions and thus sub-optimal operating points leading to additional stress. To relieve the hydropower plants, this paper proposes a hybridization strategy where a hydropower unit is paired with an energy storage system (ESS) to increase operational flexibility and mitigate damage to the hydro plant. Models are developed to represent the operation of the hybrid system, quantify degradation, and assess economic benefits. Moreover, an innovative controller disaggregates the market dispatch signal into separate control setpoints for the ESS and hydropower unit. In case studies performed on a real-world hydropower facility, it was found that the ESS-based hybridization can extend the life of the hydropower plant by 5% on average. Notably, the economic benefits from reduced maintenance and deferred investment are estimated to be around $3.6 million.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Real-time hybrid controls of energy storage and load shedding for integrated power and energy systems of ships

This paper presents an original energy management methodology to enhance the resilience of ship power systems. The integration of various energy storage systems (ESS), including battery energy storage systems (BESS) and super-capacitor energy storage systems (SCESS), in modern ship power systems poses challenges in designing an efficient energy management system (EMS). The EMS proposed in this paper aims to achieve multiple objectives. The primary objective is to minimize shed loads, while the secondary objective is to effectively manage different types of ESS. Considering the diverse ramp-rate characteristics of generators, SCESS, and BESS, the proposed EMS exploits these differences to determine an optimal long-term schedule for minimizing shed loads. Furthermore, the proposed EMS balances the state-of-charge (SoC) of ESS and prioritizes the SCESS’s SoC levels to ensure the efficient operation of BESS and SCESS. For better computational efficiency, we introduce the receding horizon optimization method, enabling real-time EMS implementation. Further, a comparison with the fixed horizon optimization (FHO) validates its effectiveness. Simulation studies and results demonstrate that the proposed EMS efficiently manages generators, BESS, and SCESS, ensuring system resilience under generation shortages. Additionally, the proposed methodology significantly reduces the computational burden compared to the FHO technique while maintaining acceptable resilience performance.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2025

Diversifying the Materials and Technologies for the Future of Energy Storage

It is increasingly important to meet the growing global energy demand driven by factors such as population growth, electrification, and the rapid development of emerging economies, while minimizing the environmental harm caused by carbon dioxide emissions. Although fossil fuels remain an abundant and inexpensive energy source, there is a global consensus on the critical importance of addressing climate change and an increasing urgency to reduce carbon dioxide emissions without hindering economic growth. This challenge is particularly daunting due to the significant transformations required in electricity generation systems, transportation, and industrial processes. A significant portion of our energy still comes from burning fossil fuels, which poses harmful effects on the environment. Transitioning to renewable energy sources like solar and wind is essential, as these sources provide a low-carbon pathway for power generation and have become increasingly cost-competitive with fossil fuels. However, they face the inherent challenge of intermittency. Thus, energy storage systems (ESS) are essential not only to address this issue but also to accommodate the increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs). Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are still the predominant ESS used for these applications; however, they suffer from issues related to scarce and harmful resources, safety, and socio-economic impacts. This underscores the need for alternative energy storage systems beyond LIBs. Here, in this review, we discuss the diversification, repurposing, and recycling of ESS to meet the projected energy demand while minimizing environmental harm.

batteries↗

DOE OSTI2024

Increasing the Reproducibility and Replicability of Supervised AI/ML in the Earth Systems Science by Leveraging Social Science Methods

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) pose a challenge for achieving science that is both reproducible and replicable. The challenge is compounded in supervised models that depend on manually labeled training data, as they introduce additional decision-making and processes that require thorough documentation and reporting. We address these limitations by providing an approach to hand labeling training data for supervised ML that integrates quantitative content analysis (QCA)—a method from social science research. The QCA approach provides a rigorous and well-documented hand labeling procedure to improve the replicability and reproducibility of supervised ML applications in Earth systems science (ESS), as well as the ability to evaluate them. Specifically, the approach requires (a) the articulation and documentation of the exact decision-making process used for assigning hand labels in a “codebook” and (b) an empirical evaluation of the reliability” of the hand labelers. In this paper, we outline the contributions of QCA to the field, along with an overview of the general approach. We then provide a case study to further demonstrate how this framework has and can be applied when developing supervised ML models for applications in ESS. With this approach, we provide an actionable path forward for addressing ethical considerations and goals outlined by recent AGU work on ML ethics in ESS.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Maximising the investment returns of a grid‐connected battery considering degradation cost

Energy storage systems (ESSs) are being deployed widely due to numerous benefits including operational flexibility, high ramping capability, and decreasing costs. This study investigates the economic benefits provided by battery ESSs when they are deployed for market‐related applications, considering the battery degradation cost. A comprehensive investment planning framework is presented, which estimates the maximum revenue that the ESS can generate over its lifetime and provides the necessary tools to investors for aiding the decision making process regarding an ESS project. The applications chosen for this study are energy arbitrage and frequency regulation. Lithium‐ion batteries are considered due to their wide popularity arising from high efficiency, high energy density, and declining costs. A new degradation cost model based on energy throughput and cycle count is developed for Lithium‐ion batteries participating in electricity markets. The lifetime revenue of ESS is calculated considering battery degradation and a cost–benefit analysis is performed to provide investors with an estimate of the net present value, return on investment and payback period. The effect of considering the degradation cost on the estimated revenue is also studied. The proposed approach is demonstrated on the IEEE Reliability Test System and historical data from PJM Interconnection.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2020

Energy Storage Control Capability Expansion: Achieving Better Technoeconomic Benefits at Portland General Electric's Salem Smart Power Center

This article reports a transformative project aimed at enhancing the control capabilities of a Portland General Electric (PGE) owned 5 MW/1.25 MWh ESS located at Salem Smart Power Center (SSPC), Salem, Oregon, USA toward achieving better techno-economic benefit. Steps for developing a value-driven control capability is illustrated starting from evaluation of economic opportunities that drive the coordination of multiple services to be delivered by an ESS to implementation and testing. Lessons learned during critical processes are identified for the benefit of the ESS industry.

Alam, Md Jan E.↗