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DOE OSTI2025

A conceptual framework for residential energy security in the context of clean energy transitions

Energy security is a crucial aspect of human well-being. As climate change impacts become more evident, countries are constructing equitable, resilient, and sustainable clean energy transition policies to reduce emissions while ensuring energy security. Climate policies globally highlight the importance of national energy security. Furthermore, adequate and affordable access to household energy is also critical to the continued prioritization of climate mitigation. However, past energy security discussions within the broader climate research and policymaking community primarily focused on national-level energy supply as a critical metric of energy security. Less research has explored the potential implications of energy transitions for residential energy security, often focusing on a single dimension of residential energy security. Thus, we conduct a review of journal articles and governmental plans to develop a conceptual framework of residential energy security and facilitate communication among researchers and policymakers. The framework is designed around four foundational pillars, five metrics measuring residential energy security, and seven drivers influencing the metrics. Additionally, we provide policy examples to show how this framework can be applied to inform decision-making. Thus, this paper makes important contributions to the literature by (a) creating a framework to better understand the concept of energy security at the household level for future research and policy-relevant communications, (b) identifying gaps in the current literature, and (c) highlighting instances where aspects of residential energy security are discussed in policies and governmental plans, which help serve as guiding examples for future applications of our framework in the policymaking processes.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Miscellaneous Electric Loads: Characterization and Energy Savings Potential

Over time, miscellaneous electric loads (MELs) are expected to increase both in magnitude and share of residential and commercial building energy consumption. This trend is most apparent in North America, but it is also occurring in Japan and Europe. However, the contribution of MELs to building energy use is not currently well understood, both because the products in this category are transforming rapidly and the definition and classification of MELs is ambiguous. This study estimated the national energy consumption of 36 MELs using best-available data and found them to comprise 12% of delivered electricity to the U.S. residential and commercial building sectors. If 26 of these MELs were replaced with the most energy-efficient product models available on the market, their energy consumption could be halved to 6% of delivered electricity. National energy models will better account for building energy consumption by incorporating the MELs data collected and analyzed for this study, leading to improved policy decisions.

Miscellaneous electric loads, Plug loads, Taxonomy↗

DOE OSTI2020

High-resolution Hindcasts for U.S. Wave Energy Resource Characterization

The marine and hydrokinetic (MHK) industry is at an early stage of development and has the potential to play a significant role in diversifying the U.S. energy portfolio and reducing the U.S. carbon footprint. Wave energy is the largest among all the U.S. MHK energy resources, which include wave energy, ocean current, tidal-instream, ocean thermal energy conversion, and river-instream. Wave resource characterization is an essential step for regional wave energy assessments, Wave Energy Converter (WEC) project development, site selection and WEC design. The present paper provides an overview of a joint modelling effort by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories on high-resolution wave hindcasts to support the U.S. Department of Energy’s Water Power Technologies Office’s program of wave resource characterization, assessment and classifications in all US coastal regions. Topics covered include the modelling approach, model input requirements, model validation strategies, high performance computing resource requirements, model outputs and data management strategies. Examples of model setup and validation for different regions are provided along with application to development of classification systems, and analysis of regional wave climates. Lessons learned and technical challenges of the long-term, high-resolution regional wave hindcast are discussed.

Yang, Zhaoqing↗

DOE OSTI2026

Are Deep Energy Retrofits in Commercial Buildings Including Window Upgrades?

U.S. Commercial buildings account for about 20% of total U.S. energy consumption. Because the thermal performance of windows significantly affects building energy efficiency and HVAC system performance, best practice guidance often includes window and envelope improvements in conjunction with HVAC upgrades to optimize energy use and improve occupant comfort. It is an open question, however, regarding how often these best practices are implemented in the field. This paper aims to address that gap by conducting a literature review and a series of interviews with commercial building auditing and management professionals to explore the factors that drive window retrofits in commercial buildings. The paper explores a range of case studies from deep energy retrofits across the globe, comparing projects with and without window retrofits. The primary goals of this review are to: (1) provide data from real-world case studies illustrating the role of windows in deep energy renovations and HVAC upgrades, (2) conduct retrofit cost analyses for windows and high-performance HVAC systems and (3) offer insights into how window upgrade decisions are made and when they are implemented as part of deep energy retrofits. Most of the retrofit studies focused exclusively on high performance HVAC upgrades without considering how window upgrades might further enhance the overall energy efficiency of commercial buildings. Interviews with building industry experts shed light on the key factors influencing deep energy retrofit decisions and what factors tip the scales in favor of including window measures with more comprehensive retrofit projects.

Cort, Katherine↗

DOE OSTI2023

Investigation of Theoretical Solutions to a Bottom-Raised Oscillating Surge Wave Energy Converter (OSWEC) Through Experimental and Parametric Studies

Experiments were conducted on a wave tank model of a bottom raised oscillating surge wave energy converter (OSWEC) model in regular waves. The OSWEC model shape was a thin rectangular flap, which was allowed to pitch in response to incident waves about a hinge located at the intersection of the flap and the top of the supporting foundation. Torsion springs were added to the hinge in order to position the pitch natural frequency at the center of the wave frequency range of the wave maker. The flap motion as well as the loads at the base of the foundation were measured. The OSWEC was modeled analytically using elliptic functions in order to obtain closed form expressions for added mass and radiation damping coefficients, along with the excitation force and torque. These formulations were derived and reported in a previous publication by the authors. While analytical predictions of the foundation loads agree very well with experiments, large discrepancies are seen in the pitch response close to resonance. These differences are analyzed by conducting a sensitivity study, in which system parameters, including damping and added mass values, are varied. The likely contributors to the differences between predictions and experiments are attributed to tank reflections, standing waves that can occur in long, narrow wave tanks, as well as the thin plate assumption employed in the analytical approach.

analytical↗

DOE OSTI2026

Energy Leaders: The Catalyst for Strategic Energy Management

This study investigates the crucial role energy leaders play in driving strategic energy management (SEM) and accelerating cost savings within a manufacturing organization and consequently, the industrial sector. Whereas energy efficiency can be seen as an innovative business practice with irrefutable cost benefits, its effective implementation requires strategic leadership and a structured approach. This research analyzes data collected from 120 participants representing 71 companies attending the Energy Bootcamp events organized by the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Better Plants program. The collected data focused on the state of SEM implementation, the presence and responsibilities of energy leaders, and the formation and function of energy teams. The findings reveal a significant gap between the perceived importance of SEM and its actual adoption, highlighting the need for strong leadership to drive behavioral changes by championing energy efficiency initiatives. Results indicate that effective energy leaders possess a diverse skill set, including the ability to secure top management buy-in, foster a culture of energy consciousness, and collaborate across departments. This study emphasizes the importance of empowering energy leaders with clearly defined roles and responsibilities as well as the authority to build and lead cross-functional energy teams. Furthermore, integrating energy management into existing organizational structures and leveraging readily available resources are identified as key factors for successful implementation. This research underscores how dedicated leadership and effective SEM practices help achieve industrial energy efficiency goals, providing practical insights for organizations seeking to improve performance and contribute to a resilient future.

energy leader↗

DOE OSTI2020

Moving Zero Energy Office Buildings to the Mainstream: Establishing Design Guidelines and Energy Targets: Preprint

Office buildings represent a significant portion of the commercial sector and are ideal candidates to lead the market towards achieving zero energy or zero energy ready buildings. The variety of sizes and uses for office buildings make them challenging to determine set design guidance that can be deployed across the market. A project committee for ASHRAE’s Zero Energy - Advanced Energy Design Guide (ZE-AEDG) for small and medium office buildings , comprised of members from five major national associations with market-pull in commercial buildings, created design guidance for achieving zero energy office buildings for new construction and major retrofit. This design guidance focuses on the process, providing a pathway for both office owners and design teams to achieve zero energy status. Energy use intensity targets range from 16 kBtu/ft²·yr to 36 kBtu/ft²·yr for the different climate zones were established such that office buildings can be “zero-ready,” that is, having low energy consumption that can easily be offset with renewables, preferably on-site. The design guidance was rooted in extensive energy modeling, as well as case studies of actual office buildings that have achieved high levels of energy performance and met zero energy or zero energy ready status. A unique aspect of the zero-energy guide is that it is not compared against a baseline but focuses on achieving an absolute target. The paper presents process of creating the targets, the selection of strategies to achieve the targets, and sample case studies that show how the cost-sensitive solutions are achievable for the design community. It also presents outreach strategies to deploy market achievable zero energy measures.

buildings↗

DOE OSTI2025

Better Climate Challenge Working Groups Non-Energy Benefits of Energy Projects-Improving Financial Payback

Energy efficiency is a key strategy recently identified by the United States Department of Energy as a pillar of industrial decarbonization. For manufacturing companies, improving energy efficiency will reduce money spent on energy utilities such as gas, electricity, and oil. Energy improvement projects also provide valuable benefits outside of simple operating cost reductions, such as reducing the carbon footprint, improving safety metrics and even enhancing quality and productivity. Unfortunately, energy efficiency projects have typically faced an adoption gap, even when they meet criteria such as payback period for capital projects. The inclusion and quantification of non-energy benefits (NEBs), also known as co-benefits, in the decision-making process for energy efficiency projects can improve the overall financial payback periods for those projects as well as potentially improve the company's key performance metrics aligned with business strategies. There are no readily available tools that facilitate this, however, and the most used tools for energy audits address NEBs in a perfunctory way if at all. We integrated research for finding and quantifying non-energy benefits of energy efficiency projects into a commonly recognized continuous improvement practice, the Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control (DMAIC) Process. This process, along with software and supplemental materials, guides energy assessments to find and to quantify NEBs associated with energy conservation opportunities. Our aim is to deliver an easy to use and effective process and software tool and to maximize return on investment for energy efficiency projects as well as contribute to companies' strategic performance goals.

DMAIC↗

DOE OSTI2023

Simulating energy performance of buildings: a study using eQUEST and Energy Star ® portfolio manager

Commercial buildings consume significant energy in the United States and exhibit high potential for energy use reduction through retrofits. Benchmarking and energy simulation are well established tools in the industry to identify potential improvements and measure performance. Analysis to identify most sensitive retrofit parameters to energy performance can optimize investment and available energy savings. Presented study demonstrates methodology using a static model to determine sensitivity of building design and retrofit parameters with respect to energy performance. Calibrated simulation energy models (eQUEST) of two distribution centers (A, B) are presented. A fractional factorial analysis is conducted on retrofit parameters of efficiency measures targeting the highest energy consumers, and the results are benchmarked using Energy Star® Portfolio Manager. A custom Microsoft Excel® based simulation model is created to simulate occupancy levels, lighting, plug loads, and other equipment used in various spaces throughout the day. For Building A, efficient lighting was the most influential parameter for energy savings, carbon savings and benchmarking score; whereas, for Building B, HVAC efficiency was most influential for energy and demand controlled ventilation and economizers was most influential for benchmarking score. While retrofit projects can save energy and carbon emissions, variation in source-site ratios and state grid emissions, benchmarking scores may not always reflect equivalent improvement. State grid emissions factors, natural gas composition are difficult to model and hence not considered in this study. In conclusion, the synergistic analysis presented, emphasizes the importance of benchmarking and efficiency retrofits in promoting sustainable building practices to reduce energy consumption.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Distributed Embedded Energy Converter Technologies for Marine Renewable Energy (A Technical Report)

The domain of distributed embedded energy converter technologies (DEEC-Tec) is a nascent and underexplored paradigm for harvesting and converting marine renewable energy. The paradigm distinguishes itself through its use of many small distributed embedded energy converters (DEECs) that, ultimately, are assembled through the creation of "DEEC-Tec metamaterials" to create an overall larger marine renewable energy harvesting and converting structure. As an example, such a structure could be an ocean wave energy converter - a converter whose structure is made from various types of DEEC-Tec metamaterials that harvests ocean wave energy and converts that energy into something more useful such as electricity. To that end, DEEC-Tec can be viewed at three different technology levels: (1) individual distributed embedded energy converters, also known as DEECs; (2) DEEC-Tec metamaterials-essentially, pseudo-materials made from the interconnection of many DEECs; and (3) overall larger complete marine renewable energy harvesting-converting structures-these structures being made from DEEC-Tec metamaterials. Arising directly from the application of DEEC-Tec to harvest and convert ocean wave energy are several noteworthy benefits, some of which include: (1) the lack of load concentrations into singular components or subsystems, (2) broad-banded ocean wave energy frequency harvesting and conversion, and (3) inherent redundancy-failure of some individual DEECs does not represent a failure of an entire DEEC-Tec-based WEC. This report describes DEEC-Tec by way of descriptions of those three technology levels: individual DEECs, DEEC-Tec metamaterials, and DEEC-Tec-based WECs. Moreover, the report describes corresponding research approaches and methodologies for related concepts such as DEEC-Tec-based WEC topologies and morphologies in addition to manufacturing and fabrication techniques found suitable for the application of DEEC-Tec within the general domain of marine renewable energy-moving beyond only ocean wave energy conversion.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗

DOE OSTI2026

Enhancing Building Resilience: Maintaining Energy Efficiency and Thermal Comfort During Power Outages in Cold Climates

The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as heatwaves and cold snaps, present significant challenges to building energy performance and occupant comfort. Highly correlated with climate events are widespread long duration power interruptions that may affect thousands of buildings and millions of customers. This study evaluates the impact of building energy performance and occupant thermal comfort in medium-sized office buildings in a cold climate region. Using energy models representing pre-1980 and 2019 vintages, simulations were conducted to assess energy performance under typical weather conditions and occupant thermal comfort during power interrupted extreme cold snap and heatwave climate events under both current 2020s and future 2050s weather conditions. The results show a projected 33% increase in cooling energy demand and a 19% reduction in heating energy by 2050. Findings reveal that older buildings are more susceptible to cold discomfort during cold snaps, while modern airtight buildings are more vulnerable to overheating during heatwaves. Various passive energy efficiency measures, such as improved infiltration control, thermal windows, solar-controlled windows, and cool envelopes, were evaluated for their ability to mitigate thermal discomforts. Solar controlled windows and weatherstripping contribute to reducing cold thermal discomfort by 21% during a power-interrupted cold snap. Solar-controlled windows were found to reduce hot thermal discomfort by 34% during a future power-interrupted heatwave. The study highlights the importance of targeted retrofitting strategies to enhance thermal resilience, especially during power outages, to ensure occupant safety and comfort during extreme climate events.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2025

DESI 2024: Constraints on physics-focused aspects of dark energy using DESI DR1 BAO data

Baryon acoustic oscillation data from the first year of the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) provide near percent-level precision of cosmic distances in seven bins over the redshift range z=0.1–4.2. Here, this paper is the follow-up to the original DESI BAO cosmology paper [A. G. Adame et al. (DESI Collaboration), arXiv:2404.03002], which considered the conventional w 0 w a cold dark matter (CDM) model. We use the novel DESI data, together with other cosmic probes, to constrain the background expansion history using some well-motivated physical classes of dark energy. In particular, we explore three physics-focused behaviors of dark energy from the equation of state and energy density perspectives: the thawing class (matching many simple quintessence potentials), emergent class (where dark energy comes into being recently, as in phase transition models), and mirage class [where phenomenologically the distance to cosmic microwave background (CMB) last scattering is close to that from a cosmological constant Λ despite dark energy dynamics]. All three classes fit the data at least as well as Λ ⁢CDM, and indeed can improve on it by Δ⁢χ 2 ≈ –5 to –17 for the combination of DESI BAO with CMB and supernova data while having one more parameter. The mirage class does essentially as well as w 0 ⁢w a CDM and exhibits moderate to strong Bayesian evidence preference with respect to Λ⁢ CDM. These classes of dynamical behaviors highlight worthwhile avenues for further exploration into the nature of dark energy.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Why is it still too warm or cold in my house? Examining the relationships between energy efficient capital and household energy insecurity

Here, this paper examines the relationships between energy efficient (EE) capital technology and household energy insecurity in the United States. The theoretical model of these relationships employs household production theory to capture the demand for and production of household energy services, and a stochastic production frontier approach to describe how having access to and the usage intensity of EE capital technology could help alleviate inefficiency in the production of household energy services. A working hypothesis formulated from the theoretical model posits that having EE capital technology in the home will reduce the level of household energy insecurity experienced. The extent of energy insecurity experienced is inferred from an energy insecurity index value assigned to each household, generated via the application of a dichotomous Rasch model to questions contained in the 2015 Residential Energy Consumption Survey. Noting the potential simultaneous relationship that exists between a household having access to and the usage intensity of EE capital technology and the experience of being energy insecure, an instrumental variables approach was employed to estimate a series of ordered logit models. Results suggest access to EE capital technology in the form of Energy Star® appliances, Energy Star® windows, or a SMART thermostat does not reduce the probability of experiencing a greater level of energy insecurity. Nor does the usage intensity of EE capital. Thus, policy instruments designed to alleviate household energy insecurity may need to go beyond simply helping households obtain EE capital technology.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Distributed Embedded Energy Converters for Ocean Wave Energy Harvesting: Enabling a Domain of Transformative Technologies: Preprint

Distributed embedded energy conversion technology (DEEC-Tec) is a very promising - but underdeveloped - domain in marine renewable energy research. The technology utilizes small distributed embedded energy converters (DEECs) that, in aggregate, form a much larger energy harvesting-converting structure. Each DEEC is a small transducer - an individual mechanism that converts one form of energy into another. A transducer's specific mode of operation can be based upon any number of physical phenomena, including variable capacitance, variable magnetic fields, or piezoelectrics. It is the dynamic deformation of a structure made from such DEECs (a DEEC-Tec structure) that provides the needed physical phenomena (the external energy source) for the underlying transducers to intake and convert energy into another form, such as electricity. DEEC-Tec structures designed specifically to dynamically deform in the presence of ocean wave energy - for the purpose of harvesting and converting that energy - can be called flexWECs. A flexWEC's gross shape (topology) and its compliant characteristics (morphologies) are chiefly determined by how the DEECs making up its structure are arranged and implemented. In turn, those corresponding topologies and morphologies will largely determine how a flexWEC interacts with - and dynamically deforms within - the presence of ocean wave energy. FlexWECs appear to have many attractive features, including broad-banded ocean energy conversion, in situ energy conversion throughout an entire flexWEC structure, inherent redundancy, and appealing material and manufacturing costs. To this end, the design and development of any particular flexWEC or flexWEC feature is a revolutionary opportunity for how we conceptualize and envision the future of ocean wave energy conversion.

50 EE - Wind and Water Power Program - Water (EE-4↗

DOE OSTI2021

Distributed Embedded Energy Converters for Ocean Wave Energy Harvesting: Enabling a Domain of Transformative Flexible Technologies

DEEC↗

DOE OSTI2023

State Energy Justice Roundtable Series: Energy Justice Metrics

The National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC), National Association of State Energy Officials (NASEO), and National Governors Association (NGA) hosted a State Energy Justice Roundtable (Roundtable) in April 2022. Participants included federal and state decision-makers, members of community-based organizations, and subject-matter experts. The Roundtable members explored current state efforts to articulate and incorporate energy justice concerns into energy-related decision-making. Participants established connections with one another to better understand the current landscape of existing resources, learn about emerging efforts, and identify ongoing support opportunities for advancing energy justice.This paper is one of five authored by the host organizations on topics that were the focus of the Roundtable. Each paper summarizes key themes, emerging efforts, and group takeaways that were discussed at the Roundtable and should assist state members in developing and meeting their own state goals around energy justice. The papers all include the same discussions of background, introduction, and reading list so they can be read separately. Each paper is written from the perspective of one association and includes options for its members to take actions that could support more equitable state energy policies and programs. The five papers cover: (1) Participation in decision making (NARUC), (2) Customer affordability and arrearages (NARUC), (3) Energy justice metrics (NARUC), (4) Equity in clean energy research and development (NASEO), and (5) Equitable distributed energy resource (DER) access (NGA). The resources and recommendations listed in these papers are not meant to be exhaustive, as this field of study continues to evolve. Although this brief is focused on electricity, energy justice considerations extend to all energy needs and services, including the impact of energy extraction, processing, and distribution functions.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Foreward: Advancing the U.S. Offshore Renewable Energy Industry through Marine Renewable and Offshore Wind Energy Development

Foreward to special issue of MTSJ Journal: Energy security … it’s what everyone is talking about, and for good reason. Against the backdrop of a changing climate in which nearly two-thirds of electricity generation is credited to fossil fuels (IEA, 2019a), countries around the world are diversifying their energy portfolios, suppliers, and energy routes to reduce vulnerabilities to energy security risks (U.S. Chamber of Commerce, 2020). Energy security concerns are related to fuel supply chains, electricity generation, transmission, distribution, energy market functionality, and energy system resiliency (DOE, 2017). These concerns demonstrate the need for well-functioning and competitive energy markets and diverse sources and routes of energy supply (DOE, 2017). In addition, environmental protection, efficiency and infrastructure improvements, energy innovation, emergency response, and resilience are also needed (DOE, 2017). Renewable energy generation is, and will continue to be, a major contributor in energy portfolio diversification, which will reduce reliance on foreign energy sources (IEA, 2019b; Aslantürk & Kiprizli, 2020) and support global decarbonization (Sims, 2004; Rockström et al., 2017; Arabzadeh et al., 2020).

marine renewable energy (MRE), offshore wind energ↗

DOE OSTI2020

Energy efficiency and renewable energy utilization in desalination systems

Desalination technologies and industry have advanced significantly in the past two decades to meet the growing freshwater demands stimulated by the compounding issues of both water quality and quantity in many regions of the world. As desalination processes are energy demanding, there have been many efforts dedicated to improve energy-efficiency of the process units, enhance energy conservation and recovery, and increase renewable energy integration in desalination plants. This review article highlights recent key advances and discusses possible venues for further development in desalination energy portfolio to reduce specific energy consumption and, via integration with solar energy, to minimize the environmental footprint associated with freshwater production. First, an overview of current desalination technologies and their energy requirements are presented followed by a discussion on opportunities for improving energy efficiency and energy recovery in both membrane and thermal desalination technologies. Then, various combinations of renewable energy driven desalination plants are discussed with some recent highlights in solar energy driven membrane, thermal and hybrid desalination processes. Technological readiness levels for novel desalination processes, their perceived impact and expected near-future developments in renewable energy integrated desalination technologies are presented. Lastly, the potential for solar driven desalination as a cost-competitive freshwater supply alternative is discussed

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗