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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2019

Historical (1700–2012) Global Multi-Model Estimates of the Fire Emissions from the Fire Modeling Intercomparison Project (FireMIP)

Fire emissions are critical for carbon and nutrient cycles, climate, and air quality. Dynamic Global Vegetation Models (DGVMs) with interactive fire modeling provide important estimates for long-term and large-scale changes of fire emissions. Here we present the first multi-model estimates of global gridded historical fire emissions for 1700-2012, including carbon and 33 species of trace gases and aerosols. The dataset is based on simulations of nine DGVMs with different state-of-the-art global fire models that participated in the Fire Modeling Intercomparison Project (FireMIP), using the same and standardized protocols and forcing data, and the most up-to-date fire emission factor table from field and laboratory studies over various land cover types. We evaluate the simulations of present-day fire emissions by comparing them with satellite-based products. Evaluation results show that most DGVMs simulate present-day global fire emission totals within the range of satellite-based products, and can capture the high emissions over the tropical savannas, low emissions over the arid and sparsely vegetated regions, and the main features of seasonality. However, most of the models fail to simulate the interannual variability, partly due to a lack of modeling peat fires and tropical deforestation fires. Historically, all models show only a weak trend in global fire emissions before ~1850s, consistent with multi-source merged historical reconstructions. The long-term trends among DGVMs are quite different for the 20th century, with some models showing an increase and others a decrease in fire emissions, mainly as a result of the discrepancy in their simulated responses to human population density change and land-use and land-cover change (LULCC). Our study provides a basic dataset for developing regional and global multi-source merged historical reconstructions and merging methods, and analyzing historical changes of fire emissions and their uncertainties as well as their role in the Earth system. It also highlights the importance of accurately modeling the responses of fire emissions to LULCC and population density change in reducing uncertainties in historical reconstructions of fire emissions and providing more reliable future projections.

Li, Fang↗
NASA NTRS2000

Cloud Condensation Nuclei in Fire-3

The centerpiece of this research was the cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) measurements of the Desert Research Institute (DRI) CCN spectrometers on board the NCAR C-130 aircraft during the Arctic Cloud Experiment (ACE) in May, 1998. These instruments operated successfully throughout all eight 10-hour research flights based in Fairbanks and the two ferry flights between Colorado and Fairbanks. Within a few months of completion of ACE the CCN data was edited and put into the archives. A paper was completed and published on the CCN climatology during the previous two FIRE field projects-FIRE 1 based in San Diego in June and July, 1987 and ASTEX based in the Azores Islands in June, 1992. This showed distinct contrasts in concentrations and spectra between continental and maritime CCN concentrations, which depended on air mass trajectories. Pollution episodes from Europe had distinct influences on particle concentrations at low altitudes especially within the boundary layer. At higher altitudes concentrations were similar in the two air mass regimes. Cloudier atmospheres showed lower concentrations especially below the clouds, which were a result mostly of coalescence scavenging.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS1982

New Technology for the Fire Attire

Although little can be done to reduce the risks of firefighting, something can be done to curb the injuries and fatalities. This is the goal of Project FIRES, a program jointly sponsored by NASA and the Federal Emergency Management Agency's U.S. Fire Administration with technical management provided by Marshall Space Flight Center. Project FIRES (Firefighter's Integrated Response Equipment System) involves applications of advanced materials and design concepts, derived from Apollo to update existing gear which does not adequately protect against many of the hazards encountered in fire suppression activities. A major focus of the effort involves application to the FIRES ensemble of lightweight, fire-resistant, heat-protective materials originally developed for use in astronauts' space suits or in spacecraft components which require thermal protection. Data from the fourteen municipal fire departments participating in the field evaluation will form a basis for development of new nationwide protective ensemble students.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS1978

Firefighters Integrated Response Equipment System

The Firefighters Integrated Response Equipment System (Project FIRES) is a joint National Fire Prevention and Control Administration (NFPCA)/National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) program for the development of an 'ultimate' firefighter's protective ensemble. The overall aim of Project FIRES is to improve firefighter protection against hazards, such as heat, flame, smoke, toxic fumes, moisture, impact penetration, and electricity and, at the same time, improve firefighter performance by increasing maneuverability, lowering weight, and improving human engineering design of his protective ensemble.

Kaplan, H.↗
NASA NTRS2009

Monitoring Disasters by Use of Instrumented Robotic Aircraft

Efforts are under way to develop data-acquisition, data-processing, and data-communication systems for monitoring disasters over large geographic areas by use of uninhabited aerial systems (UAS) robotic aircraft that are typically piloted by remote control. As integral parts of advanced, comprehensive disaster- management programs, these systems would provide (1) real-time data that would be used to coordinate responses to current disasters and (2) recorded data that would be used to model disasters for the purpose of mitigating the effects of future disasters and planning responses to them. The basic idea is to equip UAS with sensors (e.g., conventional video cameras and/or multispectral imaging instruments) and to fly them over disaster areas, where they could transmit data by radio to command centers. Transmission could occur along direct line-of-sight paths and/or along over-the-horizon paths by relay via spacecraft in orbit around the Earth. The initial focus is on demonstrating systems for monitoring wildfires; other disasters to which these developments are expected to be applicable include floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, leaks of toxic chemicals, and military attacks. The figure depicts a typical system for monitoring a wildfire. In this case, instruments aboard a UAS would generate calibrated thermal-infrared digital image data of terrain affected by a wildfire. The data would be sent by radio via satellite to a data-archive server and image-processing computers. In the image-processing computers, the data would be rapidly geo-rectified for processing by one or more of a large variety of geographic-information- system (GIS) and/or image-analysis software packages. After processing by this software, the data would be both stored in the archive and distributed through standard Internet connections to a disaster-mitigation center, an investigator, and/or command center at the scene of the fire. Ground assets (in this case, firefighters and/or firefighting equipment) would also be monitored in real time by use of Global Positioning System (GPS) units and radio communication links between the assets and the UAS. In this scenario, the UAS would serve as a data-relay station in the sky, sending packets of information concerning the locations of assets to the image-processing computer, wherein this information would be incorporated into the geo-rectified images and maps. Hence, the images and maps would enable command-center personnel to monitor locations of assets in real time and in relation to locations affected by the disaster. Optionally, in case of a disaster that disrupted communications, the UAS could be used as an airborne communication relay station to partly restore communications to the affected area. A prototype of a system of this type was demonstrated in a project denoted the First Response Experiment (Project FiRE). In this project, a controlled outdoor fire was observed by use of a thermal multispectral scanning imager on a UAS that delivered image data to a ground station via a satellite uplink/ downlink telemetry system. At the ground station, the image data were geo-rectified in nearly real time for distribution via the Internet to firefighting managers. Project FiRE was deemed a success in demonstrating several advances essential to the eventual success of the continuing development effort.

Wegener, Steven S.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Effects of Ice-Crystal Structure on Halo Formation: Cirrus Cloud Experimental and Ray-Tracing Modeling Studies

During the 1986 Project FIRE (First International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Regional Experiment) field campaign, four 22 deg halo-producing cirrus clouds were studied jointly from a ground-based polarization lidar and an instrumented aircraft. The lidar data show the vertical cloud structure and the relative position of the aircraft, which collected a total of 84 slides by impaction, preserving the ice crystals for later microscopic examination. Although many particles were too fragile to survive impaction intact, a large fraction of the identifiable crystals were columns and radial bullet rosettes, with both displaying internal cavitations and radial plate-column combinations. Particles that were solid or displayed only a slight amount of internal structure were relatively rare, which shows that the usual model postulated by halo theorists, i.e., the randomly oriented, solid hexagonal crystal, is inappropriate for typical cirrus clouds. With the aid of new ray-tracing simulations for hexagonal hollow-ended column and bullet-rosette models, we evaluate the effects of more realistic ice-crystal structures on halo formation and lidar depolarization and consider why the common halo is not more common in cirrus clouds.

Sassen, Kenneth↗
NASA NTRS1992

ETO cloud studies for FIRE 2, part 1

This research program in support of Project FIRE (First ISCCP Regional Experiment) involved two efforts. The results of the first effort, which were in direct support of the Extended Time Observations (ETO) component, are described here. Over the period from June 1990 through May 1991, our remote sensing systems were applied to providing ground-truth cirrus cloud observations for a total of 71 NOAA polar orbiting satellite overpasses. (Chronological tables of this effort are provided.) The primary remote sensor was a dual-polarization ruby (0.694 microns wavelength) lidar, although mid-way through the program we added a number of radiometers to assess the surface radiation budget and cirrus cloud infrared emittance, and some supplemental observations from a Ka-band (8.6 mm) radar were also collected. These studies were conducted from the Facility for Atmospheric Remote Sensing (FARS) at 40 degrees 46 minutes 00 seconds north latitude and 111 degrees 49 minutes 38 seconds east longitude. We also investigated the unusual characteristics of a subset of ETO case studies involving cirrus that generated solar and lunar corona displays. As we reported recently (reprint attached), these cirrus were atypically high and cold in relation to our total midlatitude cloud sample, and were comprised of unexpectedly small ice crystals from 10 to 30 microns in dimension. This finding lends some credence to the so-called cirrus small particle radiative anomaly, but only for very cold (less than -60 C) cirrus clouds. In a supplement, we will describe the design and testing of a prototype cirrus cloud polar nephelometer, which we constructed as part of our second research effort, to allow scattering phase functions to be obtained in future in situ cirrus research.

Sassen, Kenneth↗
NASA NTRS2014

Hydrogen Fire Spectroscopy Issues Project

The detection of hydrogen fires is important to the aerospace community. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has devoted significant effort to the development, testing, and installation of hydrogen fire detectors based on ultraviolet, near-infrared, mid-infrared, andor far-infrared flame emission bands. Yet, there is no intensity calibrated hydrogen-air flame spectrum over this range in the literature and consequently, it can be difficult to compare the merits of different radiation-based hydrogen fire detectors.

TechPort System↗
NASA NTRS1993

The 5-6 December 1991 FIRE IFO 2 jet stream cirrus case study: The influence of volcanic aerosols

In presenting an overview of the cirrus clouds comprehensively studied by ground-based and airborne sensors from Coffeyville, KS, during the 5-6 Dec. 1992 Project FIRE (First International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Regional Experiment) IFO II case study period, evidence is provided that volcanic aerosols from the June 1991 Pinatubo eruptions significantly influenced the formation and maintenance of the cirrus. Following the local appearance of a spur of stratospheric volcanic debris from the subtropics, a series of jet streaks subsequently conditioned the troposphere through tropopause foldings with sulfur-based particles that became effective cirrus cloud-forming nuclei. Aerosol and ozone measurements suggest a complicated history of stratospheric-tropospheric exchanges embedded within the upper level flow, and cirrus cloud formation was noted to occur locally at the boundaries of stratospheric aerosol-enriched layers that became humidified through diffusion, precipitation, or advective processes. Apparent cirrus cloud alterations include abnormally high ice crystal concentrations (up to approximately 600 l(sup -1), small but complex radial ice crystal types, and relatively large haze particles in cirrus uncinus cell heads at temperatures between -40 to -50 C. Implications for volcanic-cirrus cloud climate effects, and usual (non-volcanic aerosol) jet stream cirrus cloud formation are discussed.

Sassen, Kenneth↗
NASA NTRS1989

Advanced spacecraft fire safety: Proposed projects and program plan

A detailed review identifies spacecraft fire safety issues and the efforts for their resolution, particularly for the threats posed by the increased on-orbit duration, size, and complexity of the Space Station Freedom. Suggestions provided by a survey of Wyle consultants and outside fire safety experts were combined into 30 research and engineering projects. The projects were then prioritized with respect to urgency to meet Freedom design goals, status of enabling technology, cost, and so on, to yield 14 highest priority projects, described in terms of background, work breakdown structure, and schedule. These highest priority projects can be grouped into the thematic areas of fire detection, fire extinguishment, risk assessment, toxicology and human effects, and ground based testing. Recommendations for overall program management stress the need for NASA Headquarters and field center coordination, with information exchange through spacecraft fire safety oversight committees.

Youngblood, Wallace W.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Demonstrating Acquisition of Real-Time Thermal Data Over Fires Utilizing UAVs

A disaster mitigation demonstration, designed to integrate remote-piloted aerial platforms, a thermal infrared imaging payload, over-the-horizon (OTH) data telemetry and advanced image geo-rectification technologies was initiated in 2001. Project FiRE incorporates the use of a remotely piloted Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle (UAV), thermal imagery, and over-the-horizon satellite data telemetry to provide geo-corrected data over a controlled burn, to a fire management community in near real-time. The experiment demonstrated the use of a thermal multi-spectral scanner, integrated on a large payload capacity UAV, distributing data over-the-horizon via satellite communication telemetry equipment, and precision geo-rectification of the resultant data on the ground for data distribution to the Internet. The use of the UAV allowed remote-piloted flight (thereby reducing the potential for loss of human life during hazardous missions), and the ability to "finger and stare" over the fire for extended periods of time (beyond the capabilities of human-pilot endurance). Improved bit-rate capacity telemetry capabilities increased the amount, structure, and information content of the image data relayed to the ground. The integration of precision navigation instrumentation allowed improved accuracies in geo-rectification of the resultant imagery, easing data ingestion and overlay in a GIS framework. We focus on these technological advances and demonstrate how these emerging technologies can be readily integrated to support disaster mitigation and monitoring strategies regionally and nationally.

Ambrosia, Vincent G.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Climate data system supports FIRE

The NASA Climate Data System (NCDS) at Goddard Space Flight Center is serving as the FIRE Central Archive, providing a centralized data holding and data cataloging service for the FIRE project. NCDS members are carrying out their responsibilities by holding all reduced observations and data analysis products submitted by individual principal investigators in the agreed upon format, by holding all satellite data sets required for FIRE, by providing copies of any of these data sets to FIRE investigators, and by producing and updating a catalog with information about the FIRE holdings. FIRE researchers were requested to provide their reduced data sets in the Standard Data Format (SDF) to the FIRE Central Archive. This standard format is proving to be of value. An improved SDF document is now available. The document provides an example from an actual FIRE SDF data set and clearly states the guidelines for formatting data in SDF. NCDS has received SDF tapes from a number of investigators. These tapes were analyzed and comments provided to the producers. One product which is now available is William J. Syrett's sodar data product from the Stratocumulus Intensive Field Observation. Sample plots from all SDF tapes submitted to the archive will be available to FSET members. Related cloud products are also available through NCDS. Entries describing the FIRE data sets are being provided for the NCDS on-line catalog. Detailed information for the Extended Time Observations is available in the general FIRE catalog entry. Separate catalog entries are being written for the Cirrus Intensive Field Observation (IFO) and for the Marine Stratocumulus IFO. Short descriptions of each FIRE data set will be installed into the NCDS Summary Catalog.

Olsen, Lola M.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Comparison of surface-derived and ISCCP cloud optical properties

One objective of the FIRE Project is to validate the cloud parameters given on ISCCP tapes. ISCCP first defines whether or not a region is clear or has clouds based on two threshold algorithms. If the region has clouds, then a cloud optical depth is given as well as a cloud height. Special high resolution ISCCP CX tapes were created for the time period of the Wisconsin FIRE experiment. These tapes did not include the cloud height product, however, other parameters used to make up the standard ISCCP Cl products were available. The ISCCP cloud/no cloud and cloud depth parameters are compared with surface derived values for the Wisconsin FIRE region during the October 27 and 28 case study days.

Whitlock, C. H.↗
NASA NTRS1966

Thermocouples electrically checked while connected to data system

Constant current source is connected across the input of the millivolt measuring system to monitor the electrical continuity and resistance of multiple thermocouple installations without disconnecting them from a data system. This technique monitored gage thermocouple leads during the assembly and preflight testing of the Project Fire reentry packages.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS1980

An assessment of the risk arising from electrical effects associated with the release of carbon fibers from general aviation aircraft fires

A Poisson type model was developed and exercised to estimate the risk of economic losses through 1993 due to potential electric effects of carbon fibers released from United States general aviation aircraft in the aftermath of a fire. Of the expected 354 annual general aviation aircraft accidents with fire projected for 1993, approximately 88 could involve carbon fibers. The average annual loss was estimated to be about $250 (1977 dollars) and the likelihood of exceeding $107,000 (1977 dollars) in annual loss in any one year was estimated to be at most one in ten thousand.

Rosenfield, D.↗
NASA NTRS1987

Nonequilibrium radiation during re-entry at 10 km/s

The direct simulation Monte Carlo method, including a real air model with thermal radiation, is applied to the flows associated with the two sets of measurements that are directly relevant to the projected aeroassisted orbital transfer vehicle. The first is a shock tube measurement of the radiation from a 10 km/s shock wave in air that was made at AVCO in 1962. The second is the flight data that was obtained from the Project Fire re-entry test vehicles in 1964. The calculations for both cases were made with a program that models the one-dimensional flow along a stagnation streamline. The shock standoff distance for the Fire vehicle was obtained from the theoretical studies that were associated with its launch. The simulation employed a partly phenomenological model for the nonequilibrium radiation. It was found that the results from the calculation were consistent with the measured radiation in each case, and also with the convective heat transfer data for the Fire vehicle. The uncertainties associated with the spectral absorptance and recombination probability at the surface appear to be as serious as those associated with the reaction rates.

Bird, G. A.↗
NASA NTRS1988

Experimental program for real gas flow code validation at NASA Ames Research Center

The experimental program for validating real gas hypersonic flow codes at NASA Ames is described. Ground based test facilities used include ballistic ranges, shock tubes and shock tunnels, arcjet facilities and heated air hypersonic wind tunnels. Also included are large scale computer systems for kinetic theory simulations and benchmark code solutions. Flight tests consist of the Aeroassist Flight Experiment, the Space Shuttle, Project Fire 2, and planetary probes such as Galileo, Pioneer Venus and PAET.

Deiwert, George S.↗