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Human Spaceflight Recent Conjunctions of Interest

I. During each nine-hour shift (or upon request), the Orbital Safety Analyst (OSA) at JSpOC updates the entire tracked catalog with the latest tracking data from the SSN and screens this catalog against NASA s assets. a) For ISS operations, a 72-hour advance screening is performed. b) For Shuttle orbit operations, a 36-hour advance screening is performed. c) If a vehicle is performing a maneuver during the screening period, OSA uses post-reboost-trajectory data supplied by Mission Control Center-Houston (MCC-H) for screening. II. An automated process is used to detect any conjunctions within 10 x 40 x 40 km box (centered on the vehicle) using Special Perturbation (SP) processing: a) Box dimensions are Radial x Downtrack x Crosstrack. b) Any object found within this box has the tracking tasking level increased to improve (hopefully) its uncertainty in its current and predicted orbital trajectory. c) OSA informs NASA if any object is found inside a 2 x 25 x 25 km box then creates and sends an Orbital Conjunction Message (OCM) to NASA which contains detailed information about the conjunction. d) For Shuttle, the box size used for screening and reporting is altered for special operations (day of rendezvous, launch screening, etc.).

Browns, Ansley C.↗

Biology and the Exploration of Mars

Until recent years the origin of life and its possible occurrence elsewhere in the universe have been matters for speculation only. The rapid growth of molecular biology since 1940 has, to be sure, made it possible to discuss life's origins in far more precise and explicit terms than was possible earlier; and the subject entered a new experimental phase in the 1950's with successful abiogenic synthesis of important biochemical substances in conditions simulating the presumptive environment of the primitive Earth. But the real transformation that the subject has undergone stems from the spectacular growth of space technology in the last decade. The possibility of life's origin and occurrence on planets other than ours is no longer limited to idle speculation: it has entered the realm of the testable, of science in the strict sense. Given the rockets now available, and especially those available by 1969, it has become fully realistic to consider plans for the biological exploration of Mars. The study that this report seeks to interpret was initiated in June, 1964, by the Space Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences to examine this possibility. The working group comprised 36 people representing a broad spectrum of scientific interests: evolutionary biology, genetics, microbiology, biochemistry and molecular biology, animal physiology, soil chemistry, organic chemistry, planetary astronomy, geochemistry, and theoretical physics. The participants included some with considerable prior involvement in problems of space exploration and others with none. Advice was also sought outside the group of immediate participants on the potentialities of selected analytical methods for the experimental study of extraterrestrial life and its environment. More than 30 individuals contributed in this fashion written assessments of techniques in which they were particularly well versed. Our task was to examine the scientific foundations and merits of the proposal to undertake a biological exploration of Mars. What are the potential scientific yields? How valuable, if attained, would they be? What, in fact, is the possibility of life occurring on Mars? And of our detecting it with available and foreseeable technology? What could be achieved by further astronomical work from Earth? by Martian fly-by missions? by Martian orbiters? and Martian Landers? What payloads would we recommend for planetary missions? What timing and over-all strategy would we recommend for Martian exploration were we to consider it worthwhile at all? In brief, the over-all purpose was to recommend to. the government, through the Academy's Space Science Board, whether or not a biological exploration of Mars should be included in the nation's space program over the next few decades; and, further, to outline what that program, if any, should be.

CONFERENCE↗

NASA Data Archive Evaluation

The purpose of this study was to expose a range of naive individuals to the NASA Data Archive and to obtain feedback from them, with the goal of learning how useful people with varied backgrounds would find the Archive for research and other purposes. We processed 36 subjects in four experimental categories, designated in this report as C+R+, C+R-, C-R+ and C-R-, for computer experienced researchers, computer experienced non-researchers, non-computer experienced researchers, and non-computer experienced non-researchers, respectively. This report includes an assessment of general patterns of subject responses to the various aspects of the NASA Data Archive. Some of the aspects examined were interface-oriented, addressing such issues as whether the subject was able to locate information, figure out how to perform desired information retrieval tasks, etc. Other aspects were content-related. In doing these assessments, answers given to different questions were sometimes combined. This practice reflects the tendency of the subjects to provide answers expressing their experiences across question boundaries. Patterns of response are cross-examined by subject category in order to bring out deeper understandings of why subjects reacted the way they did to the archive. After the general assessment, there will be a more extensive summary of the replies received from the test subjects.

Holley, Daniel C.↗

Space Launch System (SLS) Human Factors Engineering Modeling & Analysis

The Human Systems Integration & Engineering (HSI&E) team at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) strives to advocate for the humans in the loop of Space Launch System’s (SLS) ground operations. Using assessment methods like human simulation, virtual reality, and physical mockups, both flight hardware and ground support equipment (GSE) are evaluated for human integration. Those ranging from 5th percentile female (approximately 5’2” tall) to 95th percentile male (approximately 6’2” tall) should be able to perform all SLS stacking operations. Operations include element physical mates, element electrical mates, and testing activities. The primary human simulation software used is Process Simulate Human (PSH) made by Siemens. This software supplies highly accurate human manikins that can interact with CAD models. PSH was used to evaluate the Transportation and Integration Platform’s (TIP) side opening that was designed for access to the Payload Adapter (PLA) cables. Technicians will need to access these cables for testing purposes before element stacking at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). After performing an analysis in PSH using the TIP side opening, it was found that neither a 5th percentile female or a 95th percentile male could perform the task as the designers had intended. There is a C-beam that blocks access to the cables (both physically and visually). An alternative analysis was performed using PSH to look at another access point to the PLA cables. Although this method would disrupt already established procedures and produce more work, the designers confirmed it was an option. Instead of technicians accessing the cables through the side opening in the TIP, a human simulation was performed for going through a panel opening in the bottom of the TIP. This method requires removal of a TIP panel and a stepladder of at least 36 inches for a 5th percentile female to access the cables.

human factors↗

Status: Crewmember Noise Exposures on the International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) provides a unique environment where crewmembers from the US and our international partners work and live for as long as 6 to 12 consecutive months. During these long-durations ISS missions, noise exposures from onboard equipment are posing concerns for human factors and crewmember health risks, such as possible reductions in hearing sensitivity, disruptions of crew sleep, interference with speech intelligibility and voice communications, interference with crew task performance, and reduced alarm audibility. It is crucial to control acoustical noise aboard ISS to acceptable noise exposure levels during the work-time period, and to also provide a restful sleep environment during the sleep-time period. Acoustic dosimeter measurements, obtained when the crewmember wears the dosimeter for 24-hour periods, are conducted onboard ISS every 60 days and compared to ISS flight rules. NASA personnel then assess the acoustic environment to which the crewmembers are exposed, and provide recommendations for hearing protection device usage. The purpose of this paper is to provide an update on the status of ISS noise exposure monitoring and hearing conservation strategies, as well as to summarize assessments of acoustic dosimeter data collected since the Increment 36 mission (April 2013). A description of the updated noise level constraints flight rule, as well as the Noise Exposure Estimation Tool and the Noise Hazard Inventory implementation for predicting crew noise exposures and recommending to ISS crewmembers when hearing protection devices are required, will be described.

Limardo-Rodriguez, Jose G.↗

Using Dome C for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer Calibration Stability and Consistency

Currently, there are two nearly identical moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) instruments operated in space: one on the Terra spacecraft launched in December 1999 and another on the Aqua spacecraft launched in May 2002. MODIS has 36 spectral bands with wavelengths covering from visible (VIS) to long-wave infrared (LWIR). Since launch, M0DIS observations and data products have significantly enabled studies of changes in the Earth system of land, oceans, and atmosphere. In order to maintain its on-orbit calibration and data product quality, MODIS was built with a comprehensive set of on-board calibrators. MODIS reflective solar bands (RSB) are calibrated on-orbit by a system that consists of a solar diffuser (SD) and a solar diffuser stability monitor(SDSM) on a regular basis. Its thermal emissive bands (TEB) calibration is executed on a scan-by-scan basis using an on-board blackbody (BB). The MODIS Characterization Support Team (MCST) at NASA/GSFC has been responsible for supporting sensor calibration and characterization tasks from pre-launch to post launch. In this paper,we describe current MCST efforts and progress made to examine sensor stability and intercalibration consistency using observations over Dome Concordia, Antarctica. Results show that this site can provide useful calibration reference for Earth-observing sensors.

Xiong, Xiaoxiong↗

Description and availability of airborne Doppler radar data

An airborne, forward-looking, pulse, Doppler radar has been developed in conjunction with the joint FAA/NASA Wind Shear Program. This radar represents a first in an emerging technology. The radar was developed to assess the applicability of an airborne radar to detect low altitude hazardous wind shears for civil aviation applications. Such a radar must be capable of looking down into the ground clutter environment and extracting wind estimates from relatively low reflectivity weather targets. These weather targets often have reflectivities several orders of magnitude lower than the surrounding ground clutter. The NASA radar design incorporates numerous technological and engineering achievements in order to accomplish this task. The basic R/T unit evolved from a standard Collins 708 weather radar, which supports specific pulse widths of 1-7 microns and Pulse Repetition Frequencies (PRF) of less than 1-10 kHz. It was modified to allow for the output of the first IF signal, which fed a NASA developed receiver/detector subsystem. The NASA receiver incorporated a distributed, high-speed digital attenuator, producing a range bin to range bin automatic gain control system with 65 dB of dynamic range. Using group speed information supplied by the aircraft's navigation system, the radar signal is frequency demodulated back to base band (zero Doppler relative to stationary ground). The In-phase & Quadrature-phase (I/Q) components of the measured voltage signal are then digitized by a 12-bit A-D converter (producing an additional 36 dB of dynamic range). The raw I/Q signal for each range bin is then recorded (along with the current radar & aircraft state parameters) by a high-speed Kodak tape recorder.

Harrah, S. D.↗

Cost Estimate for Molybdenum and Tantalum Refractory Metal Alloy Flow Circuit Concepts

The Early Flight Fission-Test Facilities (EFF-TF) team at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) has been tasked by the Naval Reactors Prime Contract Team (NRPCT) to provide a cost and delivery rough order of magnitude estimate for a refractory metal-based lithium (Li) flow circuit. The design is based on the stainless steel Li flow circuit that is currently being assembled for an NRPCT task underway at the EFF-TF. While geometrically the flow circuit is not representative of a final flight prototype, knowledge has been gained to quantify (time and cost) the materials, manufacturing, fabrication, assembly, and operations to produce a testable configuration. This Technical Memorandum (TM) also identifies the following key issues that need to be addressed by the fabrication process: Alloy selection and forming, cost and availability, welding, bending, machining, assembly, and instrumentation. Several candidate materials were identified by NRPCT including molybdenum (Mo) alloy (Mo-47.5 %Re), tantalum (Ta) alloys (T-111, ASTAR-811C), and niobium (Nb) alloy (Nb-1 %Zr). This TM is focused only on the Mo and Ta alloys, since they are of higher concern to the ongoing effort. The initial estimate to complete a Mo-47%Re system ready for testing is =$9,000k over a period of 30 mo. The initial estimate to complete a T-111 or ASTAR-811C system ready for testing is =$12,000k over a period of 36 mo.

Hickman, Robert R.↗

Forward Technology Solar Cell Experiment First On-Orbit Data

This paper presents first on orbit measured data from the Forward Technology Solar Cell Experiment (FTSCE). FTSCE is a space experiment housed within the 5th Materials on the International Space Station Experiment (MISSE-5). MISSE-5 was launched aboard the Shuttle return to flight mission (STS-114) on July 26, 2005 and deployed on the exterior of the International Space Station (ISS). The experiment will remain in orbit for nominally one year, after which it will be returned to Earth for post-flight testing and analysis. While on orbit, the experiment is designed to measure a 36 point current vs. voltage (IV) curve on each of the experimental solar cells, and the data is continuously telemetered to Earth. The experiment also measures the solar cell temperature and the orientation of the solar cells to the sun. A range of solar cell technologies are included in the experiment including state-of-the-art triple junction InGaP/GaAs/Ge solar cells from several vendors, thin film amorphous Si and CuIn(Ga)Se2 cells, and next-generation technologies like single-junction GaAs cells grown on Si wafers and metamorphic InGaP/InGaAs/Ge triple-junction cells. In addition to FTSCE, MISSE-5 also contains a Thin-Film Materials experiment. This is a passive experiment that will provide data on the effect of the space environment on more than 200 different materials. FTSCE was initially conceived in response to various on-orbit and ground test anomalies associated with space power systems. The Department of Defense (DoD) required a method of rapidly obtaining on orbit validation data for new space solar cell technologies, and NRL was tasked to devise an experiment to meet this requirement. Rapid access to space was provided by the MISSE Program which is a NASA Langley Research Center program. MISSE-5 is a completely self-contained experiment system with its own power generation and storage system and communications system. The communications system, referred to as PCSat, transmits and receives in the Amateur Radio band providing a node on the Amateur Radio Satellite Service. This paper presents an overview of the various aspects of MISSE-5 and a sample of the first measured on orbit data.

Walters, R. J.↗

Streamlining Payload Integration

Payload integration onto space transport vehicles and the International Space Station (ISS) is a complex process. Yet, cargo transport is the sole reason for any space mission, be it for ferrying humans, science, or hardware. As the largest such effort in history, the ISS offers a wide variety of payload experience. However, for any payload to reach the Space Station under the current process, Payload Developers face a list of daunting tasks that go well beyond just designing the payload to the constraints of the transport vehicle and its stowage topology. Payload customers are required to prove their payload s functionality, structural integrity, and safe integration - including under less than nominal situations. They must also plan for or provide training, procedures, hardware labeling, ground support, and communications. In addition, they must deal with negotiating shared consumables, integrating software, obtaining video, and coordinating the return of data and hardware. All the while, they must meet export laws, launch schedules, budget limits, and the consensus of more than 12 panel and board reviews. Despite the cost and infrastructure overhead, payload proposals have increased. Just in the span from FY08 to FY09, the NASA Payload Space Station Support Office budget rose from $78M to $96M in attempt to manage the growing manifest, but the potential number of payloads still exceeds available Payload Integration Management manpower. The growth has also increased management difficulties due to the fact that payloads are more frequently added to a flight schedule late in the flow. The current standard ISS template for payload integration from concept to payload turn-over is 36 months, or 18 months if the payload already has a preliminary design. Customers are increasingly requiring a turn-around of 3 to 6-months to meet market needs. The following paper suggests options for streamlining the current payload integration process in order to meet customer schedule needs and reduce costs for both the integration support teams and the developers, without reducing quality or compromising safety. Issues for the key integration areas of planning, training, verification, and safety are presented in a Root-Cause Analysis study, with plausible solutions provided that involve technology and tools already available to the ISS community. Although based upon the ISS process, the payload integration techniques outlined herein also offer an integration template for any space transport endeavor.

Lufkin, Susan N.↗

STK Integrated Message Production List Editor (SIMPLE) for CEO Operations

Late in fiscal year 2011, the Crew Earth Observations (CEO) team was tasked to upgrade and replace its mission planning and mission operations software systems, which were developed in the Space Shuttle era of the 1980s and 1990s. The impetuses for this change were the planned transition of all workstations to the Windows 7 64-bit operating system and the desire for more efficient and effective use of Satellite Tool Kit (STK) software required for reliable International Space Station (ISS) Earth location tracking. An additional requirement of this new system was the use of the same SQL database of CEO science sites from the SMMS, which was also being developed. STK Integrated Message Production List Editor (SIMPLE) is the essential, all-in-one tool now used by CEO staff to perform daily ISS mission planning to meet its requirement to acquire astronaut photography of specific sites on Earth. The sites are part of a managed, long-term database that has been defined and developed for scientific, educational, and public interest. SIMPLE's end product is a set of basic time and location data computed for an operator-selected set of targets that the ISS crew will be asked to photograph (photography is typically planned 12 to 36 hours out). The CEO operator uses SIMPLE to (a) specify a payload operations planning period; (b) acquire and validate the best available ephemeris data (vectors) for the ISS during the planning period; (c) ingest and display mission-specific site information from the CEO database; (d) identify and display potential current dynamic event targets as map features; (e) compute and display time and location information for each target; (f) screen and select targets based on known crew availability constraints, obliquity constraints, and real-time evaluated constraints to target visibility due to illumination (sun elevation) and atmospheric conditions (weather); and finally (g) incorporate basic, computed time and location information for each selected target into the daily CEO Target List product (message) for submission to ISS payload planning and integration teams for their review and approval prior to uplink. SIMPLE requires and uses the following resources: an ISS mission planning period Greenwich Mean Time start date/time and end date/time), the best available ISS mission ephemeris data (vectors) for that planning period, the STK software package configured for the ISS, and an ISS mission-specific subset of the CEO sites database. The primary advantages realized by the development and implementation of SIMPLE into the CEO payload operations support activity are a smooth transition to the Windows 7 operating system upon scheduled workstation refresh; streamlining of the input and verification of the current ISS ephemeris (vector data); seamless incorporation of selected contents of the SQL database of science sites; the ability to tag and display potential dynamic event opportunities on orbit track maps; simplification of the display and selection of encountered sites based on crew availability, illumination, obliquity, and weather constraints; the incorporation of high-quality mapping of the Earth with various satellite-based datasets for use in describing targets; and the ability to encapsulate and export the essential selected target elements in XML format for use by onboard Earth-location systems, such as Worldmap. SIMPLE is a carefully designed and crafted in-house software package that includes detailed help files for the user and meticulous internal documentation for future modifications. It was delivered in February 2012 for test and evaluation. Following acceptance, it was implemented for CEO mission operations support in May 2012.

Trenchard, Mike↗

Lunabotics Mining Competition: Inspiration through Accomplishment

Space Mining for resources such as water ice, and regolith, which contain many elements in the form of metals, minerals, volatiles and other compounds, is a necessary step in Space Resource Utilization. One of the primary goals is to extract propellants from the regolith such as oxygen and hydrogen which could then be used for in-space transportation. In addition, the space mining system can be used for various construction tasks that can benefit human and robotic exploration as well as scientific investigations based on the exposed topography. The National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) Lunabotics Mining Competition is a university-level competition designed to engage and retain students in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). NASA will directly benefit from the competition by encouraging the development of innovative lunar excavation concepts from universities which may result in clever ideas and solutions which could be applied to an actual lunar excavation device or payload. The challenge is for students to design and build a remote controlled or autonomous excavator, called a lunabot, that can collect and deposit a minimum of 10 kilograms of lunar simulant within 15 minutes. The complexities of the challenge include the abrasive characteristics of the lunar simulant, the weight and size limitations of the lunabot, and the ability to control the lunabot from a remote control center or operate autonomously. This paper will present an update of the results and lessons learned during the first and second annual Lunabotics Mining Competitions held in May 2010 and May 2011. It will also preview the 2012 competition with a review of the revised rules. In 2010,22 United States (US) universities competed, and in May 2011 the competition was opened to international participation. In 2011, 36 teams actually competed from 26 USA states and 4 foreign countries (India, Bangladesh, Colombia and Canada). This combined total directly inspired an estimated 653 university students. In 2012 more students and the public will be engaged via internet broadcasting and social networking media. The various designs will be cataloged and categorized to provide information to future Lunabotics mining robot designers and competitors. It is also expected to be of value for actual future space missions, as knowledge is gained from testing many innovative prototypes in simulated lunar regolith.

Mueller, Robert P.↗

Mars Science Laboratory Navigation Results

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), carrying the Curiosity rover to Mars, was launched on November 26, 2011, from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The target for MSL was selected to be Gale Crater, near the equator of Mars, with an arrival date in early August 2012. The two main interplanetary navigation tasks for the mission were to deliver the spacecraft to an entry interface point that would allow the rover to safely reach the landing area, and to tell the spacecraft where it entered the atmosphere of Mars, so it could guide itself accurately to close proximity of the landing target. MSL used entry guidance as it slowed down from the entry speed to a speed low enough to allow for a successful parachute deployment, and this guidance allowed shrinking the landing ellipse to a 99% conservative estimate of 7 by 20 kilometers. Since there is no global positioning system in Mars, achieving this accuracy was predicated on flying a trajectory that closely matched the reference trajectory used to design the guidance algorithm, and on initializing the guidance system with an accurate Mars-relative entry state that could be used as the starting point to integrate the inertial measurement unit data during entry and descent. The pre-launch entry flight path angle (EFPA) delivery requirement was +/- 0.20 deg, but after launch a smaller threshold of +/- 0.05 deg was used as the criteria for late trajectory correction maneuver (TCM) decisions. The pre-launch requirement for entry state knowledge was 2.8 kilometers in position error and 2 meters per second in velocity error, but also smaller thresholds were defined after launch to evaluate entry state update opportunities. The biggest challenge for the navigation team was to accurately predict the trajectory of the spacecraft, so the estimates of the entry conditions could be stable, and late trajectory correction maneuvers or entry parameter updates could be waved off. As a matter of fact, the prediction accuracy was such that the last TCM performed was a small burn executed eight days before landing, and the entry state that was calculated just 36 hours after that TCM, and that was uploaded to the spacecraft the same day, did not need to be updated. The final EFPA was 0.013 deg shallower than the -15.5 deg target, and the on-board entry state was just 200 meters in position and 0.11 meters per second in velocity from the post-landing reconstructed entry state. Overall the entry delivery and knowledge requirements were fulfilled with a margin of more than 90% with respect to the pre-launch thresholds. This excellent accuracy contributed to a very successful and accurate entry, descent, and landing, and surface mission.

navigation↗