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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1992

Thermal mathematical modeling of a multicell common pressure vessel nickel-hydrogen battery

A two-dimensional and time-dependent thermal model of a multicell common pressure vessel (CPV) nickel-hydrogen battery was developed. A finite element solver called PDE/Protran was used to solve this model. The model was used to investigate the effects of various design parameters on the temperature profile within the cell. The results were used to help find a design that will yield an acceptable temperature gradient inside a multicell CPV nickel-hydrogen battery. Steady-state and unsteady-state cases with a constant heat generation rate and a time-dependent heat generation rate were solved.

Kim, Junbom↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dynamics of Intra-Cell Thermal Front Propagation in Lithium-Ion Battery Safety Issues

Thermal runaway (TR), a critical failure mode in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), poses significant safety risks and hinders wider application of LIBs. TR typically begins at a localized heat source and spreads across the cell. Understanding thermal front propagation (TFP) characteristics, such as front and velocity, is crucial for assessing energy release and temperature distribution for battery hazardous estimation. Recent studies assume that TR within cells propagates at a near-constant velocity, based on the reaction kinetics and thermal properties. Here, in this study, an intra-battery TR model is further proposed and it indicates that TFP velocity stabilizes when the front is distanced from the heat source. Theoretical estimates for propagation velocity and front are developed and validated through numerical simulations and experimental tests from the NREL Battery Failure Databank. The energy release rate during TFP and the impact of preheating based on a point heat source are explored. This work clarifies the long-standing clouds of the thermal font propagation behaviors within the single cell, highlights the power and beauty of mathematics modeling to describe the complicated thermal behaviors, and provides important guidelines for thermal hazardous understanding for next-generation batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Model Form Error Correction for a Black-Box Thermal Battery Heat Transfer Simulation

Thermal batteries are crucial for supplying power to high-consequence engineering applications such as rockets. Computational simulations have been developed to predict thermal battery behavior, but these simulations often suffer from modeling errors, including model form uncertainty. Addressing this uncertainty can be achieved by quantifying either the model discrepancy in the output or the model form error (MFE) in the governing equation. MFE is particularly valuable as it can be better extrapolated beyond observed outputs, which is essential for predictions involving changes in external system loading, system configuration and geometry, or output quantities. This paper employs a state estimation approach to estimate MFE using experimental data and then utilizes machine learning (ML) to model its relationship with state variables. A nonintrusive technique is used to estimate MFE in a black-box thermal battery heat transfer simulation. The trained machine learning model for MFE is then applied to correct simulation predictions under extrapolated initial conditions and battery configurations. In conclusion, the methodology's performance is evaluated using additional experimental data, demonstrating its effectiveness in improving prediction accuracy.

Batteries↗
DOE OSTI2020

Modeling Extreme Deformations in Lithium Ion Batteries

A simultaneously coupled modeling approach to study the electrochemical and thermal behavior of lithium-ion batteries under large mechanical deformation has been developed. The thermo-electrochemical pseudo-2D (P2D) battery model is coupled with a mechanical material model. Mechanical, thermal, and electrochemical models are implemented as user-defined sub-routines in the commercial multi-physics code LS-DYNA. The mechanical strain experienced by anode, cathode and separator results in thickness and porosity changes in each layer which in turn influences electrochemical behavior. The evolution of concentration profiles and cell potential are studied under different mechanical loading conditions. Internal short-circuits caused by mechanical deformation and corresponding physical behaviors are also elucidated. We discuss the competing effects of improved transport at higher temperature due to the internal short-circuit versus a drop in the effective ionic conductivity and electrolyte diffusivity due to mechanical deformation.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
NASA NTRS2014

NASA Perspective and Modeling of Thermal Runaway Propagation Mitigation in Aerospace Batteries

NASA has traditionally sought to reduce the likelihood of a single cell thermal runaway (TR) in their aerospace batteries to an absolute minimum by employing rigorous screening program of the cells. There was generally a belief that TR propagation resulting in catastrophic failure of the battery was a forgone conclusion for densely packed aerospace lithium-ion batteries. As it turns out, this may not be the case. An increasing number of purportedly TR propagation-resistant batteries are appearing among NASA partners in the commercial sector and the Department of Defense. In the recent update of the battery safety standard (JSC 20793) to address this paradigm shift, the NASA community included requirements for assessing TR severity and identifying simple, low-cost severity reduction measures. Unfortunately, there are no best-practice guidelines for this work in the Agency, so the first project team attempting to meet these requirements would have an undue burden placed upon them. A NASA engineering Safety Center (NESC) team set out to perform pathfinding activities for meeting those requirements. This presentation will provide contextual background to this effort, as well as initial results in attempting to model and simulate TR heat transfer and propagation within battery designs.

safety↗
DOE OSTI2025

Comparative analysis of thermal management systems in electric vehicles at extreme weather conditions: Case study on Nissan Leaf 2019 Plus, Chevrolet Bolt 2020 and Tesla Model 3 2020

With the surge in electric vehicle (EV) adoption and the need for extended driving ranges, optimizing energy efficiency, particularly through thermal management, is critical, especially in extreme weather. Managing the substantial energy needed for cabin climate control and battery temperature regulation can increase energy demands by over 50 %, severely limiting range. This study conducts a comparative analysis of thermal management systems (TMS) in three popular EV vehicles, 2020 Chevrolet Bolt, 2019 Nissan Leaf Plus, and 2020 Tesla Model 3, evaluating their distinct TMS configurations and performance under varied weather conditions. Using both numerical simulations and experimental data collected on a controlled test bench at Argonne National Laboratory, we assess how TMS architecture and operational modes influence energy consumption and range. A comprehensive TMS model was developed, integrating cabin and battery thermal sub-models in the Autonomie software platform, to simulate temperature fluctuations and range impacts. Cabin climate was modeled using a mono-zonal approach, while battery cell temperature distribution was estimated through a 2D nodal structure. Each vehicle's distinct TMS setup was evaluated: the Chevrolet Bolt and Tesla Model 3 use a dual evaporator vapor compression cycle with a PTC heater for the cabin and a coolant loop for battery thermal management; the Nissan Leaf Plus employs a heat pump with a PTC heater for the cabin and air-cooling for the battery. Tests conducted at ambient temperatures of 35°C, 22°C, -7°C, and -18°C reveal significant differences in energy use and range reduction across both configurations and conditions. At 35°C, the Tesla Model 3, Chevrolet Bolt, and Nissan Leaf Plus have a range reduction of 8%, 9%, and 13%, respectively, due to air conditioning. In winter, heating technology is paramount; at -7°C, the Nissan Leaf's heat pump configuration achieves a lower range reduction (19.3%) compared to the Tesla and Chevrolet Bolt PTC heaters, which reduce range by 28.3% and 31%, respectively. Further, this study provides valuable insights for automotive engineers, EV technology researchers, and thermal management system designers aiming to enhance electric vehicle performance by understanding how different weather conditions and TMS architectures impact energy consumption and driving range.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Real-time Simulation Model of a Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Energy Storage System with Power Electronics Integration

This paper presents a real-time (RT) model of a 20 kW multi-stack vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) system including power electronics converters in a single real-time framework. Implemented on a Typhoon HIL 604 device, this model is designed to simulate the operation of the flow battery with system-level controls. To provide a realistic overview of a VRFB system, the model incorporates a closed-loop control system for managing the speeds of two centrifugal pumps and an electro-thermal model of the battery stacks, enabling realtime temperature estimation. Furthermore, a two-stage power electronics topology and associated control solution are presented, operating with distinct strategies for interfacing the battery model with the main grid and a local load. Results from simulations demonstrate that the VRFB model is well suited for RT environment, and system can manage power during both charging and discharging cycles, while a SCADA monitor is used to display critical variables for safe, efficient, and reliable operation of the VRFB systems.

Rezende Da Costa Reis Kimpara, Renata [ORNL] (ORCI↗
DOE OSTI2020

Behind the Meter Storage for Electric Vehicle Charging, Electrochemical and Thermal Energy Storage, and Solar Photovoltaic

In response to the potentially large and irregular demand from EVs, along with changing load profiles from buildings with on-site generation, utilities are evaluating multiple options for managing dynamic loads, including time-of-use pricing, demand charges, battery storage, and curtailment of variable generation. Buildings, as well as commercial, public, and workplace EV charging operations, can use a combination of electrochemical battery storage and thermal energy storage coupled with on-site generation to manage energy costs as well as provide resiliency and reliability for EV charging and building energy loads. We are completing a behind the meter storage analysis that focuses on determining the optimal system designs and energy flows for thermal and electrochemical behind the meter storage with on-site solar photovoltaic (PV) generation enabling electric vehicle charging in various climates, building types, and utility rate structures. In completing this analysis, we have developed a tool that combines existing battery models via the System Advisor Model (SAM) and building modeling software via EnergyPlus into a single interface. This tool allows us to simulate a building with a detailed battery model to properly size the battery, thermal energy storage, and solar PV systems to maximize profit for the system owner. This also allows us to assess how the battery degrades under various supervisory control dispatch algorithms to control charging/discharging; we can also see how thermal energy storage is created and used to complement the battery to reduce thermal loads in the building. With this project, we can analyze new batteries that are designed specifically for energy storage, rather than designed to be extremely energy dense for electric vehicle applications, using battery lifetime models from other national labs and the existing SAM battery model, which has detailed lifetime and degradation parameters. We can also assess novel thermal storage technologies by integrating them into the whole building energy simulation program EnergyPlus. Because the model calls both SAM and EnergyPlus, required inputs need to be compatible for both models. These inputs include, on a high-level, the following: weather files, building and electric vehicle load profiles, electricity rate tariff information, and system cost information for the stationary battery, solar PV, and thermal storage system. The various buildings we are studying for this analysis are retail big-box grocery store, commercial office building, fleet vehicle depot and operations facility, multi-family residential, and electric vehicle charging station. For these different applications, the battery and thermal storage will be dispatched differently, and the various technologies are sized differently to optimize cost.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2020

Numerical Modeling and Parametric Study of a Dual Purpose Underground Thermal Battery

Buildings’ thermal energy systems for providing space heating/cooling consume a considerable amount of electricity nationwide. Integrating thermal energy storage with buildings’ thermal systems has the potential to shave the peak electric demand and to overcome the mismatch between the intermittent renewable power and the fluctuating daily demand for electricity. A novel dual-purpose underground thermal battery (DPUTB) has been developed to provide diurnal thermal energy storage in conjunction with a dual-source heat pump (DSHP)system. A two-dimensional numerical model is developed to simulate the transient performance of the DPUTB. This model has similar accuracy as a detailed three-dimensional model developed with commercial heat transfer and fluid dynamics simulation program but with 1000 times faster computational speed. A parametric study is performed to identify a design of the DPUTB that can provide 14 kWh thermal storage capacity for each charging and discharging cycle. A system simulation has been developed to assess the performance of the designed DPUTB when it is integrated with a DSHP for conditioning a typical residential building in summer and winter. Simulation results indicate that the DPUTB can meet all the design requirements in both summer and winter with the simple rule-based control strategy and the overall integrated DPUTB and DSHP system can shift the electric load for meeting the thermal demand from the peak hours to off-peak hours during a day, which would result in considerable energy cost savings if a Time of Use electricity tariff is applicable.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Chapter 6: Abuse Response of Batteries Subjected to Mechanical Impact

Electrochemical and thermal models to simulate nominal performance and abuse response of lithium-ion cells and batteries have been reported widely in the literature. Studies on mechanical failure of cell components and how such events interact with the electrochemical and thermal response are relatively less common. This chapter outlines a framework developed under the Computer Aided Engineering for Batteries program to couple failure modes resulting from external mechanical loading to the onset and propagation of electrochemical and thermal events that follow. Starting with a scalable approach to implement failure criteria based on thermal, mechanical, and electrochemical thresholds, we highlight the practical importance of these models using case studies at the cell and module level. The chapter also highlights a few gaps in our understanding of the comprehensive response of batteries subjected to mechanical crash events, the stochastic nature of some of these failure events, and our approach to build safety maps that help improve robustness of battery design by capturing the sensitivity of some key design parameters to heat generation rates under different mitigation strategies.

abuse simulations↗
DOE OSTI2020

Impact Modeling and Testing of Pouch and Prismatic Cells

Understanding battery response under impact is critical to improve the safety of electrified vehicles. Nevertheless, predicting the impact behaviors of batteries is not straightforward since a battery cell usually contains hundreds of thin layers with dramatically different material properties and multiple physical processes occur simultaneously during cell deformation. Here we utilized both empirical tests and numerical models to capture the failure process of pouch and prismatic cells in various impact scenarios. In each test, a cell was hit once by an indenter dropped from a certain height. During which the cell penetration, loading force, voltage and temperature were monitored to characterize the cell’s response. Meanwhile, numerical models were developed to capture the coupled mechanical, electrical, electrochemical and thermal responses of batteries. In these models, the cell bulk was treated as a homogeneous part to achieve computational efficiency required by large-scale simulations, and it was represented by the geologic cap model that allows both shear and compaction deformation. Simulation results showed agreement with experimental data in essential features of cell behaviors during impact. Details of the test setup, model development and cell failure behaviors are presented in this paper. Additionally, capabilities, limitations and future improvement of the battery safety modeling are discussed.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Deformation and Fracture Behaviors of Cylindrical Battery Shell During Thermal Runaway

Thermal runaway is one of the catastrophic failure modes of lithium-ion cells. During thermal runaway in cylindrical cells, sidewall shell rupture has been identified as a contributing factor for thermal runaway propagation in battery packs. Herein, the deformation and fracture behaviors of the battery shell during thermal runaway are investigated based on in-situ and ex-situ characterization as well as physics-based modeling. The deformation and fracture modes of the battery shell with/without Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) sleeves are identified. In the simulation, the strain introduced by thermal expansion of the system is considered, as well as the thermal and strain rate effects on the plastic stage. The final cell shell modeling is validated by cell thermal runaway tests. Results reveal the quantitative relation between shell deformation behaviors and the pressure and temperature distribution. Both the experiment and model demonstrate the effectiveness of adding a tight-fitting CFRP sleeve around the cell in limiting the side-wall rupture of the shell. The use of CFRP tubes introduces a novel phenomenon in the context of uneven temperature distribution. Results shed light on the mechanistic analysis of a cell side-wall rupture during thermal runaway and provide essential guidance for the next-generation safe battery design.

battery casing↗
NASA NTRS2000

Thermal Aspects of Lithium Ion Cells

This viewgraph presentation outlines the development of a thermal model of Li-ion cells in terms of heat generation, thermal mass, and thermal resistance. Intended for incorporation into battery model. The approach was to estimate heat generation: with semi-theoretical model, and then to check accuracy with efficiency measurements. Another objective was to compute thermal mass from component weights and specific heats, and to compute the thermal resistance from component dimensions and conductivities. Two lithium batteries are compared, the Cylindrical lithium battery, and the prismatic lithium cell. It reviews methodology for estimating the heat generation rate. Graphs of the Open-circuit curves of the cells and the heat evolution during discharge are given.

Frank, H.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Thermal management of a high temperature sodium sulphur battery stack

The sodium sulfur battery is an advanced secondary battery with high potential for grid-level storage due to their high energy density, low cost of the reactants, and high open-circuit voltage. However, as the operating temperature of the battery is high (about 300 °C), effective thermal management is required to prevent thermal runaway under high current density operation. Here, to develop efficient thermal management strategies, a detailed, thermo-electrochemical, non-isothermal, distributed dynamic model of a sodium-sulfur battery stack is developed. Models of three thermal management strategies are developed and analyzed in this work: active cooling, passive cooling, and hybrid cooling. The active cooling strategy uses air as the cooling medium whereas, the passive cooling strategy uses a phase change material. In the hybrid cooling strategy, both active and passive cooling strategies are used. Due to the high operating temperature of the sodium sulfur batteries, the rejected heat can be utilized effectively and consequently a high variability in the heat rejection rate may not be acceptable. Performance of these strategies is analyzed under high current density operation by evaluating the variability in the cell temperature during charge/discharge cycles, temperature difference between the cells based on their locations, and variability in the heat rejection rate. The phase change-based hybrid thermal management strategy with an embedded controller maintained the temperature variation within ±/- 2.8 °C. Considering the tradeoff between the capital cost for PCM, fan power requirement, and variability in the heat rejection rate, the optimal quantity of the PCM and the maximum air velocity for the maximum current density of 260 mA/cm 2 (0.55 C-rate) were found be 0.74 g/Wh and 3 m/s, respectively.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Impact of soil model complexity on the long-term thermal performance prediction of a new shallow bore ground heat exchanger

Shallow bore ground heat exchangers have been investigated in recent years because they have the potential to reduce the initial cost of the ground source heat pump system. Correctly modeling the transient heat transfer between the ground heat exchanger and the surrounding soil is essential for predicting a ground heat exchanger's performance. Simplification of the soil model could increase computation speed but sacrifice accuracy. This study investigates the impact of the soil model complexity on the annual performance prediction of a new shallow bore ground heat exchanger, the underground thermal battery (UTB). A simple 1D soil model and a more detailed 2D soil model were implemented, and they were validated against a 3D soil model. Overall, the resulting predictions of the UTB’s response from the 1D and 2D models to a given thermal load in different climates were compared. The results show that the root mean square differences between the hourly temperatures of the UTB during a year predicted using the two soil models range from 1.17°C to 3.39°C. As a result, the difference in the annual power consumption of the heat pump was between 0.7% and 3.4%. Furthermore, the dimensions of the UTB affected its performance, and a longer UTB was less sensitive to the soil models.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Multi-fidelity information fusion and resource allocation

This project created and demonstrated a framework for the efficient and accurate prediction of complex systems with only a limited amount of highly trusted data. These next generation computational multi-fidelity tools fuse multiple information sources of varying cost and accuracy to reduce the computational and experimental resources needed for designing and assessing complex multi-physics/scale/component systems. These tools have already been used to substantially improve the computational efficiency of simulation aided modeling activities from assessing thermal battery performance to predicting material deformation. This report summarizes the work carried out during a two year LDRD project. Specifically we present our technical accomplishments; project outputs such as publications, presentations and professional leadership activities; and the project’s legacy.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗