Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “biomass supply chain”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 55 records · Page 3
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

The significance of biomass densification in biological-based biorefineries: A critical review

Replacing fossil fuels with renewable biofuels derived from lignocellulosic biomass is an important aspect of addressing environmental challenges and developing a sustainable industrial society. Densification overcomes the problems of low bulk density and poor flowability of biomass and has been commercialized for producing solid biofuels, but the overall impact of densification on biological-based biorefineries that primarily target liquid fuels (e.g., ethanol) is still under investigation. Herein, this review provides a thorough summary of the application of densified biomass in biological-based biorefineries. First, the effects of densification parameters as well as variables of biomass materials on the densified products’ quality are reviewed, and different commonly used densification technologies are also discussed and compared. Then, the discussion focuses on the physiochemical modifications of biomass caused by densification that may influence further pretreatment and/or enzymatic hydrolysis in biorefineries. Industrial pelleting has been generally shown to exhibit positive/neutral effects on the enzymatic hydrolysis of multiple biomass feedstocks after pretreatments, indicating the viability of using pellets as starting feedstocks in biorefineries. Densification causes structural disruption of biomass, which may facilitate further biochemical conversions. Integrating biomass densification in the feedstock supply chain is feasible for large-scale biorefineries to overcome the techno-economic barriers and become profitable. Suggestions are presented for the efficiency enhancement and cost reduction in densification-based biorefineries. To enable wider applications, it is now the time to employ more demo and full-scale activities in different regions of the world pushing the research and innovation of densification integrated within biorefining.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Sustainable Supply Chains by Integrating Life Cycle Modeling and Techno-Ecological Synergy with Application to Mitigation of Harmful Algal Blooms

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a challenge in water bodies across the planet and are often caused by fertilizer runoff from intensively farmed lands. This chapter describes a framework by which producers of biomass-based products could manage their supply chain to encourage mitigation of HABs and their life cycle environmental impacts, while also considering economic implications. The emphasis is on corn-based products such as ethanol in the region around Lake Erie in Northwest Ohio. It shows how wetland ecosystems could be designed synergistically with farming practices, transportation of the corn, and conversion and use of ethanol. The resulting techno-ecologically synergistic supply chains can be environmentally and economically superior to conventional techno-centric supply chains. The resulting designs can help ethanol manufacturers choose between farms, encourage farmers to adopt wetland ecosystems for intercepting and mitigating nutrient runoff, and determine the location of biorefineries for optimizing environmental and economic objectives.

air quality regulation↗
DOE OSTI2024

Woody Feedstock 2022 State of Technology Report

The U.S. Department of Energy promotes production of advanced liquid transportation fuels from lignocellulosic biomass by funding fundamental and applied research that advances the state of technology (SOT). As part of its involvement in this mission, Idaho National Laboratory completes an annual SOT report for n th -plant and 1 st -plant woody biomass feedstock logistics. The purpose of the SOT is to provide the status of feedstock supply system technology development for woody biomass to biofuels relative to technical targets and cost goals from specific design cases, based on data and experimental results. Conventional feedstock supply systems need to be modified to meet the demands of conversion pathways, specifically to have the ability to adjust the quality of the raw biomass materials. Advanced systems incorporate innovative methods of material handling, preprocessing and supply chain configuration. In advanced designs, variability of the raw biomass can be reduced to produce feedstocks of a uniform format, moving toward biomass commoditization. Against this backdrop, the 2022 Woody SOT for low-ash woody feedstocks utilizes feedstock fractionation by incorporating technologies that can separate the biomass into its anatomical fractions (wood, bark, needle, and extrinsic ash) to reduce impurities and attempt to maximize the retention of usable fractions that satisfy downstream quality considerations. By using a series of air classification steps, this strategy can reduce the extrinsic ash in forest residues, separate out a majority of the incoming needles (which can be supplied to alternate markets), and maximize the retention of whitewood in the usable fraction. The fractionated forest residues are then mixed with clean-pine chips in a 50-50 blend to prepare the feedstock for the desired conversion pathway. The n th -plant analysis estimated the delivered cost for the feedstock at $\$$69.23/dry ton (2016$\$$) which represents a $\$$6.64/dry ton decrease compared to the cost estimate of the 2021 Woody SOT supply system for low-ash woody feedstocks. The quality requirements in the 2022 Woody SOT were identical to those of the 2021 Woody SOT at = 1.00 wt % ash and = 50.51 wt% carbon. The cost savings derive primarily from reductions in dry matter losses during air classification. The GHG emissions for the n th -plant analysis were estimated at 178.39 kg CO2e/dry ton compared to 178.71 kg CO 2 e/dry ton in the 2021 Woody SOT, a decrease of 0.32 kg CO2e/dry ton. The small change stems from an increase in emissions attributed to preprocessing and slightly larger savings in emissions from transportation. In the 1 st -plant analysis of the 2022 Woody SOT system, the average throughput was estimated to be approximately 2,128 dry tons/day or 96.51% of the name plate capacity. During the simulation the daily throughput ranged from 1,090 dry tons/day to 2,200 dry tons/day, or 49.43% to 99.75% of the daily nameplate capacity. After the year of operation 722,403 tons of processed feedstock were produced in total without regard to quality considerations (99.64% of the annual nameplate capacity). The variability in throughput was primarily caused by equipment failures in the system. Regular failures, downtime caused by routine maintenance per manufacturer guidelines, contributed to a majority 62.50% of failures and 62.60% of downtime. Failures due to wear were the other cause of disruption within the system, impacting the rotary shear and orbital screen and accounting for 37.50% of the failures and 37.40% of the total downtime. Ultimately the system was on stream for 87.84% during the simulation period, which is only 2.16 percentage points below the nth-plant assumption for on-stream time. The production cost of the system averaged $\$$71.66/dry ton. The costs ranged from a minimum of $\$$71.23/dry ton to a maximum of $\$$2,115.30/dry ton. When dry matter losses (disposed low-quality fractions as well as other losses such as in grinders) were considered the costs increased to an average of $\$$75.11/dry ton with a minimum of $\$$74.69/dry ton and a maximum of $\$$2,136.86/dry ton...

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Multi-objective optimization of sustainable aviation fuel production pathways in the U.S. Corn Belt

As a potential source of low-carbon transportation energy, biofuels offer certain advantages over vehicle electrification (e.g., lower societal vulnerability to grid failures, and improved range of sustainable aviation), but also several challenges, including cost, carbon intensity, and land usage. There are also well-founded concerns that biofuel supply chains could be disrupted if extreme weather events impact feedstock yields. In this paper, we explore the use of multi-objective optimization to identify biofuel production pathways that balance cost, greenhouse gas emissions, and supply vulnerability to extreme weather. We compare the use of three different many-objective evolutionary algorithms and linear programming in optimizing biomass cultivation decisions in the U.S. Corn Belt under weather uncertainty using historical, modeled, and synthetic yield data. We consider four feedstock choices (corn, soy, switchgrass, and algae) with two land types (agricultural and marginal lands) and evaluate decisions using three alternative spatial resolutions (ranging from the USDA agricultural district level to the state level). Results show that feedstock choice is the primary driver of objective performance (i.e., the position and shape of 3D, approximate Pareto frontiers). Spatial diversification is a less effective tool in reducing exposure to weather-caused drops in crop yield.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Integrated Process Optimization for Biochemical Conversion

This research is motivated by the challenges faced during biomass processing in bioenergy plants. It has been observed that variations in biomass characteristics, such as moisture, ash, and carbohydrate contents cause variations in feeding of the system which led to underutilization of equipment and the reactor. The objective of this research is to ensure a continuous flow of biomass to the reactor in plants that use the biochemical conversion process to generate liquid fuels. The overall goal is to lower the cost of producing biofuels, which could lead to improving US’s energy independency and growing US’s rural economy. The research team developed analytical models, such as discrete element method (DEM) models and mathematical models. The DEM models are unit-level models that explicitly capture biomass characteristics and quantify the impacts of biomass characteristics on bulk material properties and the performance of specific equipment. The mathematical models are system-level models that capture the impacts of system infeed rate, equipment processing rate, storage location and capacity, and biomass characteristics on system throughput. The functional relations predicting the bulk material properties from DEM models are incorporated to the mathematical models. The models developed were validated and evaluated using data collected at Idaho National Laboratory’s biomass processing facility. Via these models, we identified process control strategies that ensure a continuous flow of biomass to the reactor, while meeting the requirements of biochemical conversion process. Our analysis indicates that sequencing of biomass bales based on moisture level, and carbohydrate contents could have a positive impact on reducing processing time and inventory level and increasing throughput rate. Short bale sequences that repeat frequently, seem to have the greatest impact on improving system’s performance. Based on our experiments, the total annual system operating costs reduced by 20-30%, and the maximum inventory level reduced by 3 to 4 times. The operating costs include the annual equipment amortization cost and processing cost. The implementation of the models developed requires the use of standardized bale format, Radio Frequency Identification technology, sensing and real time monitoring of material attributes, automated material handling equipment, and automated process control. The scope of the model proposed can be extended to include the whole supply chain. The supply chain models help identify how many bales of different biomass feedstock to purchase given biomass availability in the region, biomass price and quality, and the biomass processing capabilities of the biorefinery. Thus, the outcomes of supply chain models can be used to inform the design of long-term contracts among farmers and the biorefinery.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Assessing the deployment of solar-driven hydrogen from biomass at scale in the U.S.

Solar hydrogen from biomass gasification is a promising technology to sustainably produce hydrogen, responsibly dispose biomass waste, and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. However, its large-scale deployment faces challenges due to the geospatial misalignment between biomass resources and solar intensity, which introduces additional supply chain logistics costs. We analyze the logistics cost burden imposed by this misalignment and its impact on successful large-scale deployment of solar-driven hydrogen from biomass in the United States. We also consider associated carbon emissions and explore how the mix of deployed technologies evolves under externally imposed carbon penalties. Our findings show that while economies of scale are known to apply at the processing facility level, the reverse effect occurs at the broader systems-level, driven by logistics. Also, at current technology costs, high carbon penalties would be required to favor deployment of solar based technologies over conventional and hybrid alternatives. We further illustrate strategies and system-level changes to reduce logistics costs and enable sustainable, low-cost hydrogen for decarbonizing different industrial sectors.

Iloeje, Chukwunwike O. [Argonne National Laborator↗
DOE OSTI2025

JGI Plant Transformation Workshop, May 20-21, 2025

Domestic biomass crops such as sorghum, switchgrass, Miscanthus, and poplar can provide United States industries with renewable feedstocks while also supporting low-input farming systems and strengthening supply chains for biofuels, biochemicals and biomaterials. The U.S. leads globally in biomass crop genomics, yet progress in engineering traits is constrained by slow, genotype-dependent transformation methods and lengthy Design-Build-Test-Learn (DBTL) cycles. At a May 2025 workshop, a panel of experts recommended establishing a DOE Plant Transformation Capability (PTC) to overcome these barriers. The PTC would unite two missions: advancing research to achieve genotype-independent, automated methods, and delivering scalable transformation services through a user-facility model. With expected gains of 10–100x in efficiency, including transformation and cost reduction, the PTC would accelerate the path from discovery to engineered plants, expand community access and training, and support downstream applications and workflows including field trials and regulatory navigation. By enabling rapid and predictable crop engineering, the PTC would strengthen U.S. supply chains, enhance industrial competitiveness, and ensure that DOE’s genomic investments deliver national impact.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Miscanthus: An Environmental Choice for Marginal Lands

Miscanthus x giganteus, or Giant Miscanthus, is a tall, perennial grass originally from Asia. It is considered a sterile hybrid that has been bred to not produce viable seeds. Instead, rhizomes are planted to establish the crop. Here, the rhizome is an underground modified stem mass that puts out shoots and roots supporting new growth each year. This perennial crop takes two to three years to reach maturity, but established stands can reach upwards of 12 ft. tall with a very thick canopy (Pyter, 2007). Miscanthus has shown potential for high dry matter yields compared to other biomass crops, which could in turn lead to more efficient land use especially when applied to a bioenergy and bioproduct supply chain. In one study, switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) yielded 10.3 Mg/ha of biomass on average, while miscanthus yielded 22.4 Mg/ha (Heaton et al., 2004). Additionally, miscanthus production has been associated with many environmental benefits, including benefits to water quality, nutrient load removal, soil stabilization, and soil health (Bhardwaj et al., 2011; Hussain et al., 2019). Many of the possible practical and environmental benefits that are associated with miscanthus production may be attractive to stakeholders who are interested in alternative land use options, particularly in areas considered to be marginal in productivity.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Available land for cellulosic biofuel production: a supply chain centered comparison

The land that is potentially available to produce dedicated cellulosic bioenergy crops, often referred to as 'marginal' land, depends heavily on the underlying assumptions used to classify and identify it. In this study we compare three definitions and types of marginal land to identify the interactions between the bioenergy landscape and the logistics networks needed for the biofuel supply chain. Typical studies of the scale, cost, and greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential of cellulosic biofuel take a land-centered approach which may neglect to account for the trade-offs between establishing bioenergy crops and the supply chain design decisions needed to allow those crops to be converted to liquid fuel. A mathematical programming approach is used to minimize the total annualized cost of a large-scale field-to-product system producing bioethanol in the USA midwest. Results show that a high concentration of marginal land leads to efficient systems and that the bioenergy landscape design becomes increasingly important with a higher emphasis on GHG mitigation. Additionally, targeted landscape design (including fertilization) with a focus on fields with high soil carbon sequestration potential can greatly reduce the system-wide GHG emissions for only a small increase in the unit cost of biofuel.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Process design and techno-economic analysis for bio-based graphite and liquid hydrocarbons production from lignocellulosic biomass

The worldwide demand for graphite, as the main anode material for Li-ion batteries, is expected to double by 2028 since it supports the use of electricity, including transient renewable sources, for energy storage, sustainable mobility, and automation. However, the dependence on non-renewable and external resources jeopardizes the world supply chain. This study explores the technical and economic performance of transforming lignocellulosic biomass into biographite and fuel-grade hydrocarbons through pyrolysis bio-oil upgrading. According to simulation results, the total power demand for the biorefinery reached 10,784 kWh per tonne of biographite, of which 36 % can be supplied by the heat integration network and power plant. Sensitivity and risk analyses were conducted to evaluate the economics, with process yields identified as the most relevant indicators to the minimum selling price (MSP). The analysis revealed a promising cost-competitive range for biographite MSP against fossil-based graphite (medium quality synthetic graphite Chinese market price ~$\$$4.2/kg). Case D, which includes biofuels as a byproduct, presents the best metrics, reaching a MSP of $\$$3.3/kg of anode-grade biographite with a profit margin of 27 %. While including biofuels in the product slate provides the best economic performance, the uncertainty associated with the big capital investment makes its risk 13 % higher to attain an IRR >20 % than the case in which biographite is produced as a standalone product. Overall, this study demonstrates that integrated biorefineries can produce a cost-competitive bio-based anode material for Li-ion batteries.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Techno-Economic Analysis of decentralized preprocessing systems for fast pyrolysis biorefineries with blended feedstocks in the southeastern United States

This study evaluated the economic feasibility of fast pyrolysis biorefineries fed with blended pine residues and switchgrass in the Southeastern U.S. with different supply chain design. Previous techno-economic analyses (TEA) have focused on either blended biomass or decentralized preprocessing without investigating the impacts of varied process parameters, technology options, and real-world biomass distribution. This study fills the literature gap by modeling scenarios for different biomass blending ratios, biorefinery and preprocessing site (so-called depot) capacities, and alternative preprocessing technologies. High-resolution, real-world geospatial data were analyzed using Geographic Information Systems to facilitate supply chain design and TEA. For a decentralized system, the minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) of biofuel was 3.92–4.33 per gallon gasoline equivalent (GGE), while the MFSP for the centralized biorefinery at the same capacities ranged between 3.75–4.02/GGE. Implementing a high moisture pelleting process depot rather than a conventional pelleting process lowered the MFSP by 0.03–0.17/GGE. Scenario analysis indicated decreased MFSP with increasing biorefinery capacities but not necessarily with increasing depot size. Medium-size depots (500 OMDT/day) achieved the lowest MFSP. Here, this analysis identified the optimal blending ratios for two preprocessing technologies at varied depot sizes. Counterintuitively, increasing the proportion of higher cost switchgrass reduced the MFSP for large biorefineries (>5000 ODMT/day), but increased the MFSP for small biorefineries (1000–2500 ODMT/day). Although the decentralized systems have a higher MFSP based on current analysis, it has other potential benefits such as mitigated supply chain risks and improved feedstock quality that are difficult to be quantified in this TEA.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Regionalized Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Forest Biomass Use for Electricity Generation in the United States

This study presents a cradle-to-grave life cycle analysis (LCA) of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the electricity generated from forest biomass in different regions of the United States (U.S.), taking into consideration regional variations in biomass availabilities and logistics. The regional biomass supply for a 20 MW bioelectricity facility is estimated using the Land Use and Resource Allocation (LURA) model. Results from LURA and data on regional forest management, harvesting, and processing are incorporated into the GHGs, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies (GREET) model for LCA. The results suggest that GHG emissions of mill residues-based pathways can be 15-52% lower than those of pulpwood-based pathways, with logging residues falling in between. Nonetheless, our analysis suggests that screening bioenergy projects on specific feedstock types alone is not sufficient because GHG emissions of a pulpwood-based pathway in one state can be lower than those of a mill residue-based pathway in another state. Furthermore, the available biomass supply often consists of several woody feedstocks, and its composition is region-dependent. Forest biomass-derived electricity is associated with 86-93% lower life-cycle GHG emissions than the emissions of the average grid electricity in the U.S. Key factors driving bioelectricity GHG emissions include electricity generation efficiency, transportation distance, and energy use for biomass harvesting and processing.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Biorefinery siting and sizing to achieve the US Billion‐Ton Bioeconomy vision: A case study using a gasification–Fischer–Tropsch process

Achieving a secure, abundant, and affordable energy future requires a robust and adaptable energy strategy, with bioenergy playing a pivotal role. Biomass-based energy presents a promising pathway to use domestic resources while fostering economic opportunities in rural areas. Despite the potential to source more than 1 billion dry short tons of biomass annually in the US, significant infrastructure and economic barriers hinder full utilization for energy production. This study used the Biofuel Infrastructure, Logistics, and Transportation (BILT) model to assess biorefinery siting and scale and determine the number and size of facilities required to maximize use of the US biomass potential. A spatially agnostic approach first assessed the effects of facility capacity and transportation constraints on biomass use. Then, a spatially explicit analysis integrated county-level biomass availability from the US Department of Energy's 2023 Billion-Ton Report and technoeconomic assessments to evaluate different biorefinery deployment scenarios. The results indicate that an optimized mix of facility sizes is essential to leverage biomass resources fully across varying regional production densities to maximize use of the US biomass potential. Larger biorefineries or co-located smaller facilities significantly enhance biomass use while reducing costs through economies of scale. These findings underscore the importance of strategically balancing facility capacity and spatial distribution to optimize the bioenergy supply chain. In conclusion, this study provides critical insights for advancing the US bioenergy economy by aligning biorefinery deployment with biomass resource availability and economic viability.

BILT Model↗
DOE OSTI2024

Large-scale spatially explicit analysis of carbon capture at cellulosic biorefineries

The large-scale production of cellulosic biofuels would involve spatially distributed systems including biomass fields, logistics networks and biorefineries. Better understanding of the interactions between landscape-related decisions and the design of biorefineries with carbon capture and storage (CCS) in a supply chain context is needed to enable efficient systems. Here we analyse the cost and greenhouse gas mitigation potential for cellulosic biofuel supply chains in the US Midwest using realistic spatially explicit land availability and crop productivity data and consider fuel conversion technologies with detailed CCS design for their associated CO 2 streams. Optimization methods identify trade-offs and design strategies leading to systems with attractive environmental and economic performance. Strategic and operational decisions depend on underlying spatial features and are sensitive to biofuel demand and CCS incentives. US CCS incentives neglect to motivate greenhouse gas mitigation from all supply chain emission sources, which leverage spatial interactions between CCS, electricity prices and the biomass landscape.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Supply Chain Sustainability Analysis of Renewable Hydrocarbon Fuels via Hydrothermal Liquefaction, Combined Algal Processing, and Biochemical Conversion: Update of the 2022 State-of-Technology Cases

The Department of Energy's (DOE) Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) aims to develop and deploy technologies to transform renewable biomass resources into commercially viable, high-performance biofuels, bioproducts, and biopower through public and private partnerships. BETO and its national laboratory teams conduct in-depth techno-economic assessments (TEA) of biomass feedstock supply and logistics and conversion technologies to produce biofuels. There are two general types of TEAs: A design case outlines a target case (future projection) for a particular biofuel pathway. It informs R&D priorities by identifying areas in need of improvement, tracks sustainability impact of R&D, and provides goals and benchmarks against which technology progress is assessed. A state of technology (SOT) analysis assesses progress within and across relevant technology areas based on actual results at current experimental scales relative to technical targets and cost goals from design cases, and includes technical, economic, and environmental criteria as available. In addition to developing a TEA for a pathway of interest, BETO also performs a supply chain sustainability analysis (SCSA). The SCSA takes the life-cycle analysis approach that BETO has been supporting for over 20 years. It enables BETO to identify energy consumption, environmental, and sustainability issues that may be associated with biofuel production. Approaches to mitigating these issues can then be developed. Additionally, the SCSA allows for comparison of energy and environmental impacts across biofuel pathways in BETO's research and development portfolio. This technical report describes the SCSAs for the production of renewable hydrocarbon transportation fuels via a range of conversion technologies in the 2022 SOTs: (1) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of wet sludge from a wastewater treatment plant; (2) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via biochemical conversion of herbaceous lignocellulosic biomass; (3) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via HTL of an algae/woody biomass blend; and (4) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via combined algae processing (CAP).

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Resource Mobilization

The project goals are to identify the risks and opportunities for increasing feedstock mobilization through increased grower adoption and to identify leverage points of non-biofuel feedstock industries to grow the mobilized resource base as this will provide consistent, economical access to biomass feedstocks that represent a barrier to the establishment and growth of a biofuel industry.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Nth-plant scenario for blended pellets of Miscanthus, Switchgrass, and Corn Stover using multi-modal transportation: Biorefineries and depots in the contiguous U.S.

The sustainability of the biofuel industry depends on the development of a mature conversion technology on a national level that can take advantage of the economies of scale: the nth-plant. Here, this study addresses the logistic challenge of mobilizing national cellulosic feedstock supplies for a sustainable bioenergy industry. A Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model was developed and updated to deliver on-spec biomass that considers both a desired quantity and quality at the biorefinery. Our supply chain analysis includes multi-modal transport (truck and rail), varying depot and biorefinery sizes, and feedstock blends of corn stover (harvested by either a two- or three-pass method), switchgrass, and miscanthus. The following US states: Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Georgia, and Texas were identified as key locations for producing accessible miscanthus. Based on our most optimistic scenario, using trucks as the only transportation mode in 2040 with a cost target of $\$$79/dt, corn stover, switchgrass, and miscanthus could help meet 48% of the EPA target, 173 million dry tons that translate into 7.8 billion GGE. The addition of rail transportation for biomass delivery to biorefineries could help meet 79% of the EPA target, 283 million dry tons that translate into 12.7 billion GGE.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗