Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “electrolyte coordination”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 55 records · Page 3
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Probing the Solvation Shells of Lithium Ions in Glyme-Based Electrolytes

Glymes have been extensively studied as solvents for Li-battery electrolytes, most recently in equimolar mixtures with lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), due to their ability to form stable solvates. However, directly quantifying free and coordinated glyme molecules in the liquid state has been challenging due to several experimental limitations. Here, in this work, new vibrational probes are demonstrated for studying the solvation structures of diglyme and triglyme in LiTFSI electrolytes. These IR probes make use of an amine group to report the solvation state of glymes at salt-to-solvent molar ratios ranging from 1:5 to 1:10. Characterization of the thermodynamic properties of the solvent exchange occurring in the first solvation shell of lithium ions (Li + ) showed an equilibrium constant for these probes close to unity at room temperature. This result demonstrates that the probes exhibit a similar solvation behavior to their glyme analogue. Concentration dependence studies also revealed a lack of significant amounts of contact ion pairs at the studied concentrations. Moreover, the first solvation shell of Li + appears to be formed by two partially chelating glyme molecules, establishing that even triglyme with multiple chelation sites does not fully coordinate the cation. Complementary molecular dynamics (MD) simulations agree with the experimental results and suggest that at these concentrations, TFSI – predominantly forms solvent-separated ion pairs. However, the simulations do not properly capture the partial solvation structure of the glyme molecules in the solvation shell of Li + as derived from the experiments.

electrolytes↗
DOE OSTI2025

From Micro-environments to Macroscopic Effects: How the Alkaline Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Drives Cu Cathodic Corrosion

Cathodic corrosion of copper (Cu) has posed a significant challenge for over a century, impeding various technological progresses such as electrochemical conversion of CO 2 (eCO 2 RR) into fuels and other value-added carbon products. Here, in this study, employing a combined Density Functional Theory (DFT) and kinetic Monte Carlo (kMC) simulation approach, we delve into the atomistic level mechanism driving this phenomenon in Cu. Our hypothesis posits the pivotal role of alkaline hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in facilitating cathodic corrosion in Cu. We rigorously develop a pH-dependent hydroxide (OH) adsorption mechanism and calculate the equilibrium OH coverage (𝜃 OH ) at varying pH levels, the thermodynamic stability of subsurface oxygen (O sub ), as well as the Cu-vacancy mediated diffusion of subsurface oxygens (O sub ). Through comprehensive analysis, we establish correlation among various microenvironments, including oxygen diffusion in subsurface layers, pH-dependent OH adsorption, and Cu dissolution into the electrolyte as (Cu-OH) complexes. Furthermore, our investigation explores the correlation between surface coordination environment of active sites and cathodic corrosion of Cu. Finally, by integrating DFT-derived thermodynamic data into a kMC model, we successfully predict the formation of experimentally observed corrosion pits on Cu-surfaces. This combined approach not only advances our fundamental understanding of Cu cathodic corrosion but also offers insights crucial for developing effective corrosion mitigation strategies.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Average hydrodynamic radius analysis reveals critical solvation thresholds in high-concentration lithium electrolytes

Understanding the solvation structures of lithium salts in carbonate- and ether-based electrolytes is central to explaining the exceptional stability of high-concentration electrolytes (HCEs) and localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs). Conventional techniques such as vibrational spectroscopy and one-dimensional NMR provide only limited information, typically restricted to coordination ratios and ion-pair distributions, without revealing the actual size and mass of solution complexes. Here, in this study, we introduce an average hydrodynamic radius (AHR) analysis based on internally referenced DOSY NMR, which enables direct estimation of the average volume and molecular weight of lithium–solvent complexes in solution. Using LiFSI–EMC and LiFSI–EMC–TTE electrolytes, we demonstrate that the onset of effective lithium metal stabilization and aluminum corrosion suppression coincides with the formation of very large complexes, whose average volume exceeds 300 times that of free EMC molecules. This finding supports a new “blocking mechanism,” wherein bulky solvated complexes impede direct solvent access to reactive surfaces. The AHR analysis thus not only clarifies the fundamental origin of HCE and LHCE effectiveness, but also provides a broadly applicable experimental framework for probing complex solvation structures and guiding rational electrolyte design.

Concentrated electrolytes↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dimolybdenum Paddlewheel Complexes with Cation Binding Sites as Electrolyte Additives to Manipulate the Solid-Electrolyte Interphase at Lithium Metal Anodes

The use of electrolyte additives at millimolar loadings to control the surface chemistry of lithium metal anodes (LMAs) is a leading strategy to improve lithium metal batteries and promote electrosynthetic reactions. Whereas previous studies employed either inorganic or organic additives, in this study, we report the first organometallic additive, Mo 2 (mea) 4 [1, mea = 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)acetate], a dimolybdenum paddlewheel complex that is stable under Li plating conditions and features cation binding sites in the second coordination sphere that promote reversible Li + coordination. Binding of Li + ions to 1 induces immobilization of cationically charged aggregates (or products thereof) into the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), imparting multiple beneficial functions. The modified SEI was found to protect the LMA against parasitic side reactions, produce modest but measurable improvements to Li plating properties (e.g., overpotential, surface structure, and Coulombic efficiency), and improve interfacial charge transport properties. Furthermore, the most notable benefit to battery cycling performance appears in calendar aging tests, which show that the presence of the additive protects the LMA from parasitic side reactions that would otherwise decrease overall cell cycling efficiency over time. Collectively, these data disclose a tactic for designing electrolyte additives using principles of organometallic synthesis.

Additives↗
DOE OSTI2026

Liquified SO 2 induced solid/cathode electrolyte interphase for lithium ion batteries

Formation of robust solid/cathode electrolyte interphases (S/CEI) is vital for long-term stability and high-performance operation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly under high voltage regimes. However, engineering electrochemically stable S/CEIs that effectively suppress interfacial side reactions remains a key challenge. Herein, we introduce a liquefied sulfur dioxide (SO 2 )– ionic liquid complex as a fluorine-free multifunctional electrolyte additive for the first time that significantly improves the formation of sulfate/sulfite-rich S/CEI layers at both graphite and NMC811 interfaces. The unique SO 2 -N coordination with a 1,2,4-triazolide-based ionic liquid enables homogeneous SO 2 dissolution, resulting in controlled SO 2 decomposition during the initial electrochemical cycle. This decomposition yields sulfur-rich interphase species that stabilize the electrolyte-electrode interface, reduce impedance growth, and lessen electrolyte decomposition. Electrochemical tests show significantly improved cycle life, reduced polarization, and increased Coulombic efficiency for both anodes and cathodes. XPS confirms the presence of SO 2 -derived surface species that contribute to interfacial stability. In conclusion, this approach highlights a new direction for interphase engineering using liquefied gas additives and opens pathways for sulfur-based S/CEI chemistry in advanced battery systems.

Graphite↗
DOE OSTI2026

Advanced LiFSI-LiPF6 Electrolyte for Wide-Temperature and Thermally Stable Lithium-Ion Batteries

A new optimized LiFSI–LiPF6 dual-salt controlled-solvation electrolyte (E-DS) is demonstrated to enable practical graphite||LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 cells (˜4.0 mAh cm?²) to achieve exceptional performance and safety under extreme conditions. By optimizing anion coordination with the smaller, more dissociating FSI? anion, the E-DS forms ultrathin, dense, and inorganic-rich electrode/electrolyte interphases that dramatically suppress solvent decomposition, transition-metal dissolution, and surface reconstruction compared to the conventional LiPF6/carbonate electrolyte. Consequently, E-DS cells deliver >78% capacity retention after 300 cycles at 60 °C, retain fast discharging capacity at 30 °C, and operate effectively at -20 °C. Most strikingly, fully charged full cells with E-DS, even under overcharging to 4.8 V, show a lower heat evolution in stable formulations — transforming a traditionally unstable high-voltage/high-temperature configuration into an intrinsically safe state. This work establishes a new benchmark for carbonate-containing electrolytes, simultaneously achieving high energy density, fast-discharging capability, wide-temperature operation (-20 to 60 °C), and outstanding thermal safety in nickel-rich lithium-ion batteries.

electrode/electrolyte interphase↗
NASA NTRS1993

Influence of electrolytes on growth, phototropism, nutation and surface potential in etiolated cucumber seedlings

A variety of electrolytes (10-30 mol m-3) increased the relative growth rate of etiolated cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. cv. Burpee's Pickler) hypocotyls by 20-50% relative to water-only controls. The nonelectrolyte mannitol inhibited growth by 10%. All salts tested were effective, regardless of chemical composition or valence. Measurements of cell-sap osmolality ruled out an osmotic mechanism for the growth stimulation by electrolytes. This, and the nonspecificity of the response, indicate that an electrical property of the solutions was responsible for their growth-stimulating activity. Measurements of surface electrical potential supported this reasoning. Treatment with electrolytes also enhanced nutation and altered the pattern of phototropic curvature development. A novel analytical method for quantitating these effects on growth was developed. The evidence indicates that electrolytes influence an electrophysiological parameter that is involved in the control of cell expansion and the coordination of growth underlying tropisms and nutations.

Non-NASA Center↗
DOE OSTI2024

Electrochemical and Chemical Reactivities of Titanium Oxide-Based Materials with a Chloroaluminate Ionic Liquid Electrolyte for Aluminum Batteries

Here, by selecting three different types of electrode materials, we intended to better understand the Al 3+ intercalation chemistry of titanium oxide-based frameworks with an acidic chloroaluminate electrolyte. In agreement with previous reports, we confirmed that the native interstitial sites of anatase TiO 2 are less prone to accommodate Al 3 + than Li + or Na + ions, while introducing cationic vacancies largely increases the electrochemical storage capacity. Upon the first cycle, the highest reversible capacity, up to 277 mAh/g, was obtained for a hydrated layered structure featuring cationic vacancies. Total scattering data showed that the insertion of Al 3+ ions induced a strong distortion of the framework. In addition, combined 27 Al MAS NMR and DFT calculations revealed that in oxy-hydroxylated vacant sites, the coordination mode of Al 3+ ions depends on the arrangement of anions around vacancies inducing the occurrence of 4-, 5-, and 6-fold coordination modes. Further cycling experiments revealed a progressive capacity fading for all electrode materials. Using cyclic voltammetry on the used electrolyte, we evidenced that a partial dissolution has occurred, which is more pronounced for the layered hydrate compound, and that solubilized species are electrochemically active, giving rise to specific signatures in both CVs and galvanostatic experiments. Raman spectroscopy enabled us to characterize these species, which are derived from the Ti-Cl system. The solubilized species, however, eventually precipitated, as shown by a purple deposit observed on the separator and tentatively assigned to TiCl 3 , known to be insoluble in this medium. By providing further information on the Al 3+ intercalation chemistry and a better understanding of the electrochemical and chemical reactivities of electrode materials, this work will enable progress to be made in the development of aluminum-ion batteries.

Al3+-ion insertion chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2025

Weakly solvating electrolytes: a solvation-centric paradigm for rechargeable metal batteries

Electrolyte design has long followed a solvation-first paradigm that prioritizes solvents capable of maximizing salt dissociation and ionic conductivity, while treating interfacial degradation and rheological limitations as secondary constraints. Although this approach has enabled significant progress in lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries, it inherently favors solvent-dominated solvation structures that destabilize reactive metal interfaces. Weakly solvating electrolytes (WSEs) offer a fundamentally different strategy. By using solvents with intrinsically low donor strength and minimal electrostatic affinity for cations, WSEs suppress cation–solvent coordination and promote anion-rich solvation shells without relying on salt superconcentration. This shift lowers desolvation barriers, redirects interfacial decomposition pathways, and supports the formation of inorganic-rich, stable interphases. In this review, we discuss the molecular and solvation criteria that distinguish WSEs from conventional and concentrated or locally concentrated electrolyte systems, examine their implementation across different chemistries, and identify unresolved design challenges. WSEs are presented not as a niche formulation, but as a solvation-centric framework for rethinking electrolyte function in metal battery technologies.

Karbak, Mehdi [Pacific Northwest National Laborato↗
NASA NTRS1990

Exercise during long term exposure to space: Value of exercise during space exploration

There appear to be two general physiological reasons why exercise will be beneficial to space travelers who will experience a weightless and isolated environment for many months or a few years: (1) to alleviate or prevent tissue atrophy (principally bone and muscle), to maintain cardiovascular function, and to prevent deleterious changes in extracellular and cellular fluid volumes and plasma constituents, especially electrolytes; and (2) to maintain whole organism functional physical and physiological status with special reference to neuromuscular coordination (physical skill) and physical fitness (muscle strength and power, flexibility, and aerobic endurance). The latter reason also relates well to the ability of the crew members to resist both general and local fatigue and thus ensure consistent physical performance. Various forms of exercise, performed regularly, could help alleviate boredom and assist the travelers in coping with stress, anxiety, and depression. The type, frequency, duration and intensity of exercise and ways of ensuring that crew members engage in it are discussed.

Source record↗
DOE OSTI2024

Optimizing Nonaqueous Sodium–Polysulfide Redox-Flow Batteries: The Role of Solvation Effects with Glyme Solvents

Nonaqueous redox-flow batteries (NARFBs) that use economical alkali metals and the corresponding metal polysulfides are highly attractive for grid-scale energy storage. Although sodium–sulfur systems have been recognized as promising candidates and have been the focus of many studies due to their high earth abundance and energy density, an understanding of the role of the solvation chemistry of commonly used glyme solvents is missing. Herein, we report a systematic investigation into the solvation effects of glyme-based Na-S electrolytes through comprehensive physiochemical experiments and Density Functional Theory (DFT) simulations. Our findings revealed, on one hand, that an optimal coordination strength between glymes and Na + could maintain a relatively smooth Na + diffusion. On the other hand, glyme solvents with extended chain lengths shift the reduction potential of S 8 2– negatively to elevate the formation barrier of undesirable short-chain polysulfides (S n 2– , n ≤ 4) that have high membrane permeability. This solvation phenomenon not only mitigates capacity fading but also extends the operational longevity of the Na-S NARFBs. In conclusion, the results underscore the critical roles of balanced solvent–cation interactions and controlled redox potentials in improving the stability and efficiency of Na-S NARFB systems, marking a significant advancement in the development of sustainable energy storage solutions.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Integrated machine learning-molecular dynamics framework for electrolyte property prediction

Electrochemical stability windows determine the operating range of battery electrolytes, yet accurate prediction remains challenging because stability emerges from statistical ensembles of local solvation environments rather than single ground-state molecular structures. Traditional density functional theory calculations on energy-minimized clusters cannot capture the thermal variations in local coordination environments and geometries that govern decomposition, while SMILES-based machine learning methods lack explicit representation of three-dimensional solvation structure and ion pairing. Here, we introduce a structure-aware machine learning framework that predicts frontier orbital energies (HOMO and LUMO) directly from molecular dynamics-sampled solvation configurations, achieving sub-0.6 eV accuracy at computational costs 3–4 orders of magnitude lower than first-principles methods. Across twelve representative battery electrolytes, we demonstrate that solvent-separated and contact ion pairs exhibit strong size- and local chemistry dependent electronic stability, with variations in coordination shifts of HOMO or LUMO level by 2–3 eV, and that extended solvation structure and partially desolvated environment further modulate stability by up to 3 eV. By encoding the statistical nature of electrochemical failure through ensemble sampling of explicit solvation geometries, our approach enables high-throughput screening and rational design of next-generation battery electrolytes with mechanistic understanding of structure–property relationships.

Energy - Storage↗
DOE OSTI2026

Conformational Isomerization of Imide Anions Governs Solvation and Transport in Water-in-Salt Electrolytes

The behavior of highly concentrated electrolytes departs radically from the dilute-solution theory, yet the molecular origin of this transformation remains unresolved. Here, we identify the conformational isomerization of molecular ions as a decisive, previously unrecognized control parameter governing structure and transport in crowded aqueous electrolytes. Across a series of fluorosulfonimide anions, we show that increasing concentration drives a collective shift from extended transoid to compact cisoid conformers, revealed by small-angle X-ray scattering, vibrational spectroscopy, pulsed-field gradient NMR, and molecular dynamics simulations. This conformational transition triggers a collapse of the hydrogen-bonded water network and the emergence of densely packed ionic domains with confined water, producing a qualitative change in Li+ transport from solvent-mediated diffusion to network-confined hopping. Anion size and asymmetry systematically tune the onset of this transition, demonstrating that molecular geometry dictates mesoscale organization and dynamics in the ion-rich regime. Our results establish ion conformation, not merely composition or coordination, as a fundamental thermodynamic variable in concentrated solutions, providing a chemical framework that unifies solvation structure and transport in water-in-salt electrolytes and suggesting new principles for designing dense ionic media.

Nguyen, Huong TD↗
DOE OSTI2024

Design Principles and Routes for Calcium Alkoxyaluminate Electrolytes

Multivalent-ion battery technologies are increasingly attractive options for meeting diverse energy storage needs. Calcium ion batteries (CIB) are particularly appealing candidates for their earthly abundance, high theoretical volumetric energy density, and relative safety advantages. Here, at present, only a few Ca-ion electrolyte systems are reported to reversibly plate at room temperature: for example, aluminates and borates, including Ca[TPFA] 2 , where [TPFA] - = [Al(OC(CF 3 ) 3 ) 4 ] - and Ca[B(hfip) 4 ] 2 , [B(hfip) 4 ] 2 – = [B(OCH(CF 3 ) 2 ) 4 ] - . Analyzing the structure of these salts reveals a common theme: the prevalent use of a weakly coordinating anion (WCA) consisting of a tetracoordinate aluminum/boron (Al/B) center with fluorinated alkoxides. Leveraging the concept of theory-aided design, we report an innovative, one-pot synthesis of two new calcium-ion electrolyte salts (Ca[Al(tftb) 4 ] 2 , Ca[Al(hftb) 4 ] 2 ) and two reported salts (Ca[Al(hfip) 4 ] 2 and Ca[TPFA] 2 ) where hfip = (-OCH(CF 3 ) 2 ), tftb = (-OC(CF 3 )(Me) 2 ), hftb = (-OC(CF 3 ) 2 (Me)), [TPFA] - = [Al(OC(CF 3 ) 3 ) 4 ] - . We also reveal the dependence of Coulombic efficiency on their inherent propensity for cation–anion coordination.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Anode Potential Evolution During Zinc Metal Plating and Stripping in Dual-Solvent Battery Electrolytes

In the field of battery electrolyte research, the importance of the working cation solvation environment has become increasingly more apparent. To optimize bulk properties and, especially, interfacial reactions, multisolvent electrolytes (electrolytes containing two different solvents) have become more prevalent in battery research and development. In this work, we elucidate the relationship between cation solvation and interfacial electrochemistry, demonstrating that preferential solvation of Zn 2+ by a strong coordinating solvent such as 2-methoxyethylamine or ethylenediamine as opposed to a weaker solvent such as 3-methylsulfolane or acetonitrile leads to dynamic evolution in the interfacial energetics during Zn plating and stripping due to local changes in solvent composition and coordination. In some instances, interfacial solvation evolution can shift the reversible potential of Zn plating by as much as 1 V under relatively mild rate conditions. Through these investigations, we establish the generality of this phenomenon, highlight its importance as a consideration in dual-solvent battery electrolytes, and provide direction for tailoring electrochemistry through solvent design.

Hahn, Nathan T.↗
DOE OSTI2024

From Bulk to Interface: Solvent Exchange Dynamics and Their Role in Ion Transport and the Interfacial Model of Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries

Multivalent battery chemistries have been explored in response to the increasing demand for high-energy rechargeable batteries utilizing sustainable resources. Solvation structures of working cations have been recognized as a key component in the design of electrolytes; however, most structure–property correlations of metal ions in organic electrolytes usually build upon favorable static solvation structures, often overlooking solvent exchange dynamics. We here report the ion solvation structures and solvent exchange rates of magnesium electrolytes in various solvents by using multimodal nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis and molecular dynamics/density functional theory (MD/DFT) calculations. These magnesium solvation structures and solvent exchange dynamics are correlated to the combined effects of several physicochemical properties of the solvents. Moreover, Mg 2+ transport and interfacial charge transfer efficiency are found to be closely correlated to the solvent exchange rate in the binary electrolytes where the solvent exchange is tunable by the fraction of diluent solvents. Our primary findings are (1) most battery-related solvents undergo ultraslow solvent exchange coordinating to Mg 2+ (with time scales ranging from 0.5 μs to 5 ms), (2) the cation transport mechanism is a mixture of vehicular and structural diffusion even at the ultraslow exchange limit (with faster solvent exchange leading to faster cation transport), and (3) an interfacial model wherein organic-rich regions facilitate desolvation and inorganic regions promote Mg 2+ transport is consistent with our NMR, electrochemistry, and cryogenic X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (cryo-XPS) results. In conclusion, this observed ultraslow solvent exchange and its importance for ion transport and interfacial properties necessitate the judicious selection of solvents and informed design of electrolyte blends for multivalent electrolytes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Theory of Cation Solvation in the Helmholtz Layer of Li-Ion Battery Electrolytes

The solvation environments of Li + in conventional nonaqueous battery electrolytes, such as LiPF 6 in mixtures of ethylene carbaronate (EC) and ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), are often used to rationalize transport properties and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation. Solvation environments in the compact electrical double layer (EDL) next to the electrode, also known as the Helmholtz layer, determine (partially) what species can react to form the SEI, with bulk solvation environments often being used as a proxy. Here, we develop and test a theory of cation solvation in the Helmholtz layer of nonaqueous Li-ion battery electrolytes. First, we validate the theory against bulk and diffuse EDL atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of LiPF 6 EC/EMC mixtures as a function of surface charge, where we find the theory can qualitatively capture the solvation environments. Next, we turn to the Helmholtz layer, where we find the main effect of the solvation structures next to the electrode is an apparent reduction in the number of binding sites between Li + and the solvents, again where we find reasonable agreement with our developed theory. Finally, by solving a simplified version of the theory, we find that the probability of Li + binding to each solvent remains equal to the bulk probability, suggesting that the bulk solvation environments are a reasonable place to start when understanding battery electrolytes. Our developed formalism can be parametrized from bulk MD simulations and used to predict the solvation environments in the Helmholtz layer through reducing the number of available coordination sites, which can be used to determine what could react and form the SEI.

Helmholtz↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solvation Environment and Interface Dynamics of Li 2 B 12 H 12 and Li 2 B 12 F 12 Electrolytes Uncovered by Theory and Operando Optical and FTIR Spectroelectrochemistry

In this work, we evaluated two closo-borate salts (Li 2 B 12 H 12 and Li 2 B 12 F 12 ) in propylene carbonate from theoretical and experimental perspectives to understand how the coordination environment influences their spectroscopic and electrochemical properties. The coordination environments of the closo-borate salts were modeled via density functional theory (DFT) and molecular dynamics (MD). Vibrational spectra calculated from the predicted coordination environments are in agreement with experimentally measured steady-state FTIR data. This theoretical investigation also suggested that Li 2 B 12 F 12 would possess a higher ionic conductivity than Li 2 B 12 H 12 , which was corroborated experimentally. Additionally, an electrochemical cell was designed and fabricated that enabled operando optical and FTIR spectroelectrochemical (OP-IR-SEC) measurements. This allowed for the simultaneous measurement of the relative changes of species at a lithium electrode-liquid electrolyte interface and the visualization of lithium plating at the electrode surface. This technique could provide new chemical insights and potentially link optical changes at the electrode–electrolyte interface to specific chemical species in similar electrochemical systems. The Li 2 B 12 F 12 electrolyte was found to have a higher thermal stability, which may find utility in applications for batteries that are subject to high-temperature conditions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗