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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Progress of Gas Injection EOR Surveillance in the Bakken Unconventional Play—Technical Review and Machine Learning Study

Although considerable laboratory and modeling activities were performed to investigate the enhanced oil recovery (EOR) mechanisms and potential in unconventional reservoirs, only limited research has been reported to investigate actual EOR implementations and their surveillance in fields. Eleven EOR pilot tests that used CO2, rich gas, surfactant, water, etc., have been conducted in the Bakken unconventional play since 2008. Gas injection was involved in eight of these pilots with huff ‘n’ puff, flooding, and injectivity operations. Surveillance data, including daily production/injection rates, bottomhole injection pressure, gas composition, well logs, and tracer testing, were collected from these tests to generate time-series plots or analytics that can inform operators of downhole conditions. A technical review showed that pressure buildup, conformance issues, and timely gas breakthrough detection were some of the main challenges because of the interconnected fractures between injection and offset wells. The latest operation of co-injecting gas, water, and surfactant through the same injection well showed that these challenges could be mitigated by careful EOR design and continuous reservoir monitoring. Reservoir simulation and machine learning were then conducted for operators to rapidly predict EOR performance and take control actions to improve EOR outcomes in unconventional reservoirs.

Energy & Fuels↗
DOE OSTI2022

Geothermal Hydraulic Stimulation: Overview of Methods and Best Practices

This paper outlines important information related to the hydraulic stimulation of geothermal wells and considerations for regulators responsible for evaluating applications to conduct these operations. Hydraulic stimulation applied to geothermal wells is an evolving technology that is different from the hydraulic fracturing process widely used to complete unconventional oil and gas wells. Important differences relate to operating pressures, variations in rock and fracture processes, and characteristics and disposal of hydraulic fracture fluids. Hydraulic stimulation is not widely used in the geothermal industry; however, future development of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) will require hydraulic stimulation in order to enhance and create fracture permeability to allow wells to deliver sufficient heat and fluid to power plants. Gigawatts of EGS potential have been identified (U.S. Department of Energy 2019), so it is expected that the use of hydraulic stimulation of geothermal wells will be more common in the future. At present, there are no formal regulations guiding drilling programs or sundry notices that propose hydraulic stimulation of geothermal wells. On federal lands, important constraints and oversight are embedded in the process for obtaining Geothermal Drilling Permits outlined in the Code of Federal Regulations (43 CFR Section 3262.11); in Geothermal Resource Order 2 (GRO 2) guidance for assessment and mitigation of impacts of geothermal operations as well as construction and testing of geothermal wells; and in a Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Induced Seismicity Instruction Memorandum (BLM 2018). Additionally, local knowledge from BLM field offices and expertise of BLM engineers, or that of state regulators for operations on private and state lands, will be applied to fully assess operator applications to conduct geothermal hydraulic stimulation activities. Significant research effort has been directed toward EGS, so geothermal hydraulic stimulation techniques, impacts, and results are evolving and becoming better understood, including adaptation of decades of oil and gas industry experience with hydraulic fracturing of unconventional reservoirs. Recent EGS activities in the United States provide details about hydraulic stimulation with respect to oversight, stimulation design, execution, and results. Based on experience to date, the important issues to address when hydraulically stimulating a geothermal well include the following: 1. Wellbore construction and integrity must be appropriate to protect groundwater and manage stimulation pressures. 2. Understanding of lithology, faults, fractures, and subsurface stress state is necessary to design stimulation plans and predict results. 3. Seismic monitoring allows for observation and mitigation of induced seismicity.

geothermal↗
DOE OSTI2025

Gas-phase synthesis of naphthalene through an unconventional thermal alkyne–alkene [2 + 2] cycloaddition mechanism

Exotic cycloaddition entrance channels were discovered for the bimolecular gas-phase reactions of the phenylethynyl radical (C 6 H 5 CC, X 2 A 1 ) with ethylene-d 4 (C 2 D 4 ) and propylene (C 3 H 6 ) as explored under single-collision conditions utilizing the crossed molecular beams technique combined with electronic structure and statistical calculations. Connecting the concepts of barrierless entrance channels, excited states, and facile non-photochemically activated cycloadditions, the reaction pathway features an unconventional thermal [2 + 2] cycloaddition forming a four-membered ring collision complex followed by multiple isomerizations prior to unimolecular decomposition via atomic hydrogen loss to (un)substituted naphthalenes—naphthalene-d 4 (C 10 H 4 D 4 ) and 1-/2-methylnaphthalene (C 11 H 10 ). The small energy gap between the singly-occupied a 1 highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) with a σ-character and the underlying doubly-occupied b 1 molecular orbital with a π-character allows a facile promotion of an electron. This in turn enables a versatile low-temperature reactivity of phenylethynyl, where the end-on and side-on barrierless approaches of ethylene are due to its interaction with the σ and π orbitals, respectively, thus suggesting this mechanism as a possible method for tuning substituents in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) formation and highlighting its versatility as a probe of fundamental carbon chemistry via counterintuitive cycloaddition reactions under single-collision conditions.

Goettl, Shane J. [University of Hawaii at Manoa, H↗
DOE OSTI2021

Conasauga Shale Research Consortium (CSRC) (Final Report)

The objective of the Conasauga Shale Research Consortium (CSRC) project was to establish a field laboratory and utilize a horizontal well of opportunity to conduct a scientific study designed to advance the understanding of the petrophysical and geomechanical properties of the emerging Rogersville Shale unconventional oil and gas play. Unfortunately, just as the research program was beginning, our industry partner lost a primary investor in the horizontal well which was intended to be the ‘well of opportunity’ for the project. In a negotiated restructuring of the project by DOE-NETL and the Awardee consortium, additional time for Budget Period 1 was granted in the hopes that the industry partner could acquire additional investments to allow for the drilling of the horizontal well. This search was ultimately unsuccessful, and the consortium was unable to pass the negotiated Go/No-go Decision Point #1, which resulted in the termination of the project on July 31, 2021.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2022

Impact of Organic and Volatile Compounds in Produced Water from Unconventional Reservoirs on Direct Contact Membrane Distillation Permeate Quality

The expansion of oil and gas extraction from unconventional reservoirs has led to an increase in the amount of produced water that has to be managed by this industry. Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) is a promising technology for treatment of produced water to enable water recovery and reduce the environmental footprint of this industry. The feasibility of DCMD for the treatment of highly saline produced water from the Permian Basin in TX with commercially available polyethylene and polytetrafluoroethylene membranes was evaluated in this study. An increase in water recovery by a DCMD system operated in the batch (concentrating) mode led to an increase in permeate conductivity. Partial removal of organic compounds from the produced water by biodegradation, chemical oxidation, and/or activated carbon adsorption could not resolve deterioration in permeate quality, and none of the organics observed in the permeate contributed to its conductivity. The observed increase in permeate conductivity was attributed to the passage of ammonia vapor from the feed side followed by protonation on the permeate side. Furthermore, this study revealed that permeate conductivity may not always be a reliable indicator of membrane wetting and underscores the importance of understanding the interactions between specific solutes and membrane materials.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Novel Geochemistry Determined from High Pressure, High Temperature Simulation Experiments of Hydraulic Fracture Test Site 2

A standard method in unconventional oil and gas production is the process of hydraulic fracturing followed by a shut-in period, during which the fracture fluid remains pressurized in the reservoir for up to three weeks before production begins. Despite this widely used process, very little is known about what occurs in the reservoir during this shut-in process. In order to properly delineate potential reservoir reactions that may occur during shut-in that would lead to corrosion and scaling events, experiments were conducted in high pressure, high temperature reactors to simulate conditions of the Wolfcamp Formation in the Delaware Basin. Experimental design allowed the assessment of the effect of proppant, microbiology, and time on the mineralogy and fluid chemistry in the reservoir. Results suggest the biggest impact on fluid chemistry and shale mineralogy during shut-in is time. Analyses demonstrate dissolution of the shale material, with maximum dissolved ions occurring after 7 days of the shut-in period. After 21 days, results suggest precipitation occurs. The Delaware Basin is demonstrated to be high in sulfate content, which further increases in the fluid due to dissolution reactions during shut-in. The pressure vessel experiments suggest there was no significant contribution to reactions from microbiology during the shut-in period. Furthermore, early production samples demonstrate a significant selection of the microorganism Caminicella, a genus of which has previously been correlated to corrosion and sulfide production. Results suggest shut-in conditions may provide high sulfate concentrations that could later be utilized by a shifted microbial community to drive potential well infrastructure failure. This is the first study to incorporate microbiology, mineralogy, and fluid chemistry to investigate the fundamental geochemical reactions that occur during shut-in and early phase production of the Delaware Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/URTECONF/proceedings-pdf/21URTC/2-21URTC/D021S032R001/2477425/urtec-2021-5219-ms.pdf/1 by Carol Worster on 28 February 2022 Basin. Results from this study can complement observations from the Hydraulic Fracture Test Site 2 observations

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Geochemistry and Microbiology Predict Environmental Niches with Conditions Favoring Potential Microbial Activity in the Bakken Shale

The Bakken Shale and underlying Three Forks Formation is an important oil and gas reservoir in the United States. The hydrocarbon resources in this region are accessible using unconventional oil and gas extraction methods, including horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. However, the geochemistry and microbiology of this region are not well understood, although they are known to have major implications for productivity and water management. In this study, we analyzed the produced water from 14 unconventional wells in the Bakken Shale using geochemical measurements, quantitative PCR (qPCR), and 16S rRNA gene sequencing with the overall goal of understanding the complex dynamics present in hydraulically fractured wells. Bakken Shale produced waters from this study exhibit high measurements of total dissolved solids (TDS). These conditions inhibit microbial growth, such that all samples had low microbial loads except for one sample (well 11), which had higher 16S rRNA gene copies. Our produced water samples had elevated chloride concentrations typical of other Bakken waters. However, they also contained a sulfate concentration trend that suggested higher occurrence of sulfate reduction, especially in wells 11 and 18. The unique geochemistry and microbial loads recorded for wells 11 and 18 suggest that the heterogeneous nature of the producing formation can provide environmental niches with conditions conducive for microbial growth. This was supported by strong correlations between the produced water microbial community and the associated geochemical parameters including sodium, chloride, and sulfate concentrations. The produced water microbial community was dominated by 19 bacterial families, all of which have previously been associated with hydrocarbon-reservoirs. These families include Halanaerobiaceae, Pseudomonadaceae, and Desulfohalobiaceae which are often associated with thiosulfate reduction, biofilm production, and sulfate reduction, respectively. Notably, well 11 was dominated by sulfate reducers. Our findings expand the current understanding of microbial life in oil and gas related environments, provide new insights into how the unique produced water conditions shape microbial communities, and demonstrate thatproduced water chemistry is tightly linked with microbiota in the Bakken Shale. Finally, our study shows that additional research efforts are necessary to understand this ecosystem and highlights the need for work in other unconventional reservoirs.

Tinker, Kara↗
DOE OSTI2020

Gaining Perspective on Unconventional Well Design Choices through Play-level Application of Machine Learning Modeling

The recent development of unconventional oil and gas (O&G) reservoirs has led to an abundant hydrocarbon supply, both domestically and globally. However, there is a continued push to develop new and innovative approaches to improve exploration and extraction efficiencies and overall well productivity moving forward. Substantial improvements in unconventional O&G development are expected through optimized well completion and stimulation strategies aimed at maximizing well productivity. Optimizing well designs will require tailoring to the distinctive geologic conditions present for any newly placed well. To better evaluate the impact of well design attributes and their associated interactions on productivity in a major unconventional play, multivariate machine learning-based models that use empirical datasets were developed. A gradient boosted regression tree (GBRT) algorithm was applied. GBRT has been narrowly investigated for O&G applications but enables straightforward parametric importance and influence evaluation, as well as assessment of parameter interaction effects. Models were trained on well design and locational parameters that serve as a proxy for variable geologic conditions to estimate two types of productivity indicator response variables strongly correlated to estimated ultimate recovery (EUR). The dataset utilized consists of over 7,000 well observations that cover the majority of the productive region of the Marcellus Shale. Model performance was evaluated and algorithm parameters tuned by analyzing the goodness-of-fit for simulated results against observed data in a cross-validation approach. Models were found capable of 73–79 percent prediction accuracy on held out testing data of gas equivalent production and can be used to inform future well design and placement decisions for increasing EUR per well and improving overall field-level recovery. Study results indicate that Marcellus well performance improves most with upscaling perforated interval lengths and water and proppant volumes per foot; but relative productivity improvements are spatially dependent across the play. Finally, optimal combinations of water and proppant on well performance were found to vary depending on well location, emphasizing the utility of data-driven models capable of broad application across a play of interest for informing tailored well design approaches prior to their field deployment.

04 OIL SHALES AND TAR SANDS↗
DOE OSTI2021

In-situ 4D visualization and analysis of temperature-driven creep in an oil shale propped fracture

Here, the proppant embedment due to creep in shales is a known issue affecting the useable lifetime of wells in unconventional oil and gas recovery. One of the factors influencing creep is the presence of organics, whose properties can be very sensitive to temperature. In this work we investigated for the first time the role of temperature-induced creep increase in proppant embedment in an organics-rich Green River oil shale sample via in-situ synchrotron X-ray micro-computed tomography. We observed that temperatures as low as 75 °C already induce fast creep, with a fracture aperture closing rate of 13 μm/h and a loss of fracture conductivity rate of 8.7%/h, due only to proppant embedment, in the measured interval at the first heating stage. Local displacement data analysis provided evidence for markedly plastic deformation around the proppant-shale contacts, in contrast with the brittle proppant embedment observed on more cemented and less organics-rich shales at room temperature. The results highlight how the problem of temperature-dependent mechanical behavior might be more important than previously thought, in shales with a high content in organics, and that in-situ micro-imaging techniques can play a key role in understanding the underlying mechanisms, contributing to solve creep-related problems associated with hydraulic fracturing in complex scenarios.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2024

Produced water sharing: Improved economics and reduced community impact – A Pennsylvania case study

Here, hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas extraction from unconventional reservoirs is water intensive. Between water sourced for fracturing purposes and water present in rock formations, operators often produce a greater volume of water than oil or gas. Historically, this surplus of produced water has mainly been disposed of via deep injection wells. Rising disposal costs, seasonally limited water availability, and concerns over induced seismicity have incentivized produced water recycling practices, where an operator uses produced water for hydraulic fracturing operations. The logistical challenges associated with produced water recycling have also encouraged operators to adopt ad-hoc water exchange practices, in which competing operators will exchange produced water for mutual cost savings. In this paper, we investigate the potential benefit from systematic produced water exchange among operators in Northeastern Pennsylvania. We leverage PARETO, a free and open-source modeling framework for produced water management optimization, to quantify the benefits of water exchange practices. In an example drawn from FracFocus data, we find that the adoption of systematic water sharing could improve produced water recycling rates from 49.2% to 99%, decreasing operating and trucking costs.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Field Evaluation of the Caney Shale as an Emerging Unconventional Play, Southern Oklahoma

The Mississippian-age Caney Shale is an emerging unconventional oil and gas (UOG) resource play in the southern Midcontinent and is prospective in the Anadarko, Ardmore, Marietta and western Arkoma basins. This play is enigmatic in that time equivalent Fayetteville Shale in the eastern Arkoma basin and Barnett Shale in the Ft. Worth Basin are major unconventional plays, whereas Caney Shale production is sparse and unpredictable (Cardott, 2017). In the Anadarko, Ardmore and Marietta basins, the Caney Shale is in the oil window, but its resource potential has not been adequately assessed. The Caney reservoir is about 60-300 m thick, is rich in total organic carbon, contains a large oil resource base, and has a strong natural gas drive; however, development has been hampered by high clay content and reactivity of the formation with water. The main objective of this initial four-year research project was to address these issues by establishing a Caney Shale Field Laboratory in the Ardmore Basin of southern Oklahoma to (a) conduct a comprehensive field characterization (b) perform field experiments, and (c) validate cost-effective technologies that will lead to a comprehensive and efficient development strategy plan for Caney Shale.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2020

Project Methods to Enhance Wellbore Cement Integrity with Microbially-Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) (Final Scientific/Technical Report)

The goal of this project was to develop improved methods for sealing compromised wellbore cement in leaking oil and gas wells, thereby reducing the risk of unwanted upward fluid migration. Novel methods for improving wellbore integrity, such as microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP), can reduce leakage potential, improve the safety of fossil fuel extraction, improve the public perception of hydraulic fracturing, and promote environmentally-prudent unconventional oil and gas development. Microbes, with the urease enzyme, can catalyze the chemical reaction of urea hydrolysis to induce the precipitation of calcium carbonate which can be used as a cementitious material to seal leakage pathways. In this project, methods to promote robust bio-composite cementitious materials were designed and tested in the laboratory. Scale-up of those methods were tested in meso-scale reactor systems and in field applications. In this report, in Section One, we describe laboratory efforts to develop injection strategies to promote precipitation in wellbore analogs and determine the strength of the bio-composite cements as compared to fine cement. In Section Two, we describe the efforts to scale up the work and study the use of materials that can be used in field application, for example exploring the use of calcium chloride ice melt or urea fertilizer as source chemicals. In Section Three, the three field trials (methods and results) performed as part of the project are described and summarized. At the end of the report is a comprehensive summary and conclusion section which highlights the key findings of the project. The work performed during this project significantly advanced the technology readiness level (TRL) of the MICP wellbore sealing strategy.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2020

Methods to Enhance Wellbore Cement Integrity with Microbially-Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) (Final Scientific/ Technical Report)

The goal of this project was to develop improved methods for sealing compromised wellbore cement in leaking oil and gas wells, thereby reducing the risk of unwanted upward fluid migration. Novel methods for improving wellbore integrity, such as microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP), can reduce leakage potential, improve the safety of fossil fuel extraction, improve the public perception of hydraulic fracturing, and promote environmentally-prudent unconventional oil and gas development. Microbes, with the urease enzyme, can catalyze the chemical reaction of urea hydrolysis to induce the precipitation of calcium carbonate which can be used as a cementitious material to seal leakage pathways. In this project, methods to promote robust bio-composite cementitious materials were designed and tested in the laboratory. Scale-up of those methods were tested in meso-scale reactor systems and in field applications. In this report, in Section One, we describe laboratory efforts to develop injection strategies to promote precipitation in wellbore analogs and determine the strength of the bio-composite cements as compared to fine cement. In Section Two, we describe the efforts to scale up the work and study the use of materials that can be used in field application, for example exploring the use of calcium chloride ice melt or urea fertilizer as source chemicals. In Section Three, the three field trials (methods and results) performed as part of the project are described and summarized. At the end of the report is a comprehensive summary and conclusion section which highlights the key findings of the project. The work performed during this project significantly advanced the technology readiness level (TRL) of the MICP wellbore sealing strategy.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Key Learnings from Hydraulic Fracturing Test Site - 2 (HFTS-2), Delaware Basin

Hydraulic fractures (HF) play a dominant role in oil and gas production from unconventional reservoirs, fracture characteristics, geometry, and extent are generally not well known and are typically inferred from various monitoring methods or subsurface models. The Hydraulic Fracturing Test Site-2 (HFTS-2) is a field-based research experiment performed in the Wolfcamp formation of the Permian (Delaware) Basin. HFTS-2, a unique joint industry program (JIP) that brings together government, academia, and industry, focused on field data acquisition and interpretation. The project has built a comprehensive HF research dataset that includes microseismic (MS), 1,500 ft of core, diagnostic formation injection tests (DFIT), fluid characterization, advanced logs, geochemistry, downhole gauges, varying completions, and permanent fiber optic (FO) cable in vertical and horizontal wells. These data were integrated and used to characterize HF geometry/dimensions and resulting depletion profiles, gain insights for completion design, and achieve a better understanding of parent well depletion effects on child well performance. The analysis and integration of the comprehensive HFTS-2 diagnostics dataset provide insights for optimal well placement and completions and improves understanding about the effects of parent well depletion. Furthermore, this dataset can be used to blind test and develop subsurface workflows for unconventional resources. Key learnings from HFTS-2 and the new technologies tested can easily be transferred to other unconventional plays.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

All-digital Sensor System for Distributed Downhole Pressure Monitoring in Unconventional Fields

This project developed and validated (through field tests) a new low-cost all-digital pressure sensing technology for in situ distributed downhole pressure monitoring in unconventional oil and gas (UOG) fields. The all-digital sensing technology uses a built-in non-electric analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to transform the pressure information into a combination of binary (ON/OFF) states. As such, the system does not need downhole electronics for signal conditioning and telemetry. The all-digital sensors can be remotely logged over a long distance, and many sensors can be multiplexed for distributed sensing. Based on a review of unconventional wells in the Lower 48 states, the specification of the sensor is to measure pressure up to 69 MPa (10,000 psi) and temperature up to 250°C. A sensor with a helical bourdon sensing element and a digital signal decoder of 50 mm diameter and 109 mm length was constructed. The helical bourdon sensing element was made of 304L stainless steel and filled with motor oil. The digital converter was made up of 8 digital reading pads constructed of high-temperature epoxy with conductive inserts made of stainless steel. The sensor had a linear response to pressure with an accuracy of 0.14 MPa (20 psi). To withstand the high pressure, the sensor was enclosed in a stainless-steel pressure housing with a wall thickness of 5.5 mm, a diameter of 73 mm, and a length of 724 mm. In the laboratory tests, the sensor exhibited no temperature-related effects on the results. The sensor did not show drift over a 14-day test period at elevated pressure. A field test was conducted where the sensor was deployed in a test wellbore at the Quest drilling test facility to a depth of 0 feet over three weeks. The sensor was attached to the production rods, along with a downhole reference sensor of PPS27 type, which is a permanent downhole monitoring system. During the testing phase, the test well annular blow-out preventer was closed, and the well was pressurized at the surface to 11 MPa (1600 psi). The sensor read the elevated bottom hole pressure of 1500 psi. A multiplexing unit was created for the sensor to deploy multiple sensors on one data transmission line in a distributed approach. The multiplexing unit was tested in a simulated environment of 3048 m (10,000 ft) with five sensors distributed. The sensors were pressurized at different intervals. The multiplexed sensors recorded the correct pressure, and the multiplexing did not interfere with the readings. The proposed concept of an all-digital pressure sensor for harsh downhole environments was designed, manufactured, and tested in the laboratory and tested at the field to a up to 69 MPa and 250°C. This technology has high-temperature tolerance and has potential in downhole areas outside oil and gas, such as carbon capture and storage (CCS) and geothermal wells. The sensor concept has been proven in this project, but to create a commercially viable product, manufacturing a sensor with a smaller diameter needs to be performed.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2024

Characterization of Oil and Gas Drill Cuttings for Critical Mineral Recovery and Reuse Potential as Soil Supplements

Expansion of unconventional oil and natural gas production over the last decade in the United States has resulted in record production of natural gas and oil in 2024. Millions of tons of drill cuttings generated from shale gas development are currently disposed of in landfills. Converting these cuttings into value product(s) such as critical minerals (CMs) and soil supplements, has the potential of reducing environmental impact of fossil fuel exploration. In this study we characterize the CM distribution and extractability from collected drill cuttings and core samples from major U.S. shale formations. A four-step sequential extraction, consisting of a sonicated soap step, sonicated EDTA step , mildly reducing agent, and a oxidizing agent, was developed to simultaneously extract CMs and convert the drill cuttings into soil supplements. Viability of converted drill cuttings as soil supplement was determined with a seedling growth experiment. Results show high concentrations of vanadium (V) (up to 1575 ppm, barite (up to 5 wt. %), and rare earth elements (REE) concentrations (up to 253 ppm). High extractability of selected critical minerals such as REE (19-50%) and Ba (10-58%) show promising results. Preliminary results show seedling growth in a mixture of converted drill cuttings with soil. These results show the potential for recovery of CMs from drill cuttings as an alternative domestic and the reduction of the environmental impact of fossil fuel production.

Barczok, Maximilian↗