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NASA NTRS1990

Studies of dust grain properties in infrared reflection nebulae

A model has been developed for reflection nebulae around luminous IR sources embedded in dense dust clouds. The shape of the IR spectrum is shown to be the result of a combination of the scattering properties of the dust, the spectrum of the illuminating source, and foreground extinction, while geometry plays a minor role. Comparison of the model results with IR observations of the reflection nebula surrounding OMC-2/IRS 1 shows that either a grain size distribution like that found in the diffuse ISM, or consisting of larger grains, can explain the observed shape of the spectrum. However, the absolute intensity level of the scattered light, as well as the observed polarization, requires large grains. By adding water-ice mantles to the silicate and graphite cores, the 3.08 micron ice-band feature observed in the spectra of several IR reflection nebulae has been modeled. It is shown that this ice band arises naturally in optically thick reflection nebulae containing ice-coated grains.

Pendleton, Y. J.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Survey of coherent ion reflection at the quasi-parallel bow shock

This paper presents the results of a survey of ion beam observations near the earth's quasi-parallel bow shock. Particular attention is given to three issues: (1) the spatial locations of the cold coherent ion beams relative to the shock, (2) the velocity space locations of the ion beams relative to that expected for specular reflection, and (3) the parameter regimes over which the beams are observed. Evidence is found that coherent ion reflection occurs commonly in the quasi-parallel regime, over essentially the full range of upstream plasma parameters normally found at the earth's bow shock. It was also observed that the cold coherent reflected beams spread rapidly in the velocity space upstream from the shock. The observations presented serve as an extension to those presented by Gosling et al. (1989) and further strengthen the conclusion that specularly reflected ions are contributing directly to the downstream thermalization at the earth's quasi-parallel bow shock.

Onsager, T. G.↗

NASA NTRS1989

The relationship between leaf water status, gas exchange, and spectral reflectance in cotton leaves

Measurements of leaf spectral reflectance, the components of water potential, and leaf gas exchanges as a function of leaf water content were made to evaluate the use of NIR reflectance as an indicator of plant water status. Significant correlations were determined between spectral reflectance at 810 nm, 1665 nm, and 2210 nm and leaf relative water content, total water potential, and turgor pressure. However, the slopes of these relationships were relatively shallow and, when evaluated over the range of leaf water contents in which physiological activity occurs (e.g., photosynthesis), had lower r-squared values, and some relationships were not statistically significant. NIR reflectance varied primarily as a function of leaf water content, and not independently as a function of turgor pressure, which is a sensitive indicator of leaf water status. The limitations of this approach to measuring plant water stress are discussed.

Bowman, William D.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Ice and minerals on Callisto - A reassessment of the reflectance spectra

The results of a comparison of laboratory spectral reflectance measurements of particulate mixtures of both hydrated silicates and palagonite with water ice, on the one hand, with two previously unpublished reflectance spectra of Callisto, yield direct support for the hypothesis that the measured reflectance of Callisto includes a substantial nonice component. Hapke's (1981) equations are used in a theoretical model for thorough analysis of telescopic data; a comparison of the calculation results thus obtained with measured reflectance data for Callisto indicate that three-component, ice/magnetite/serpentine mixtures are a better match for telescopic data than two-component ice mixtures.

Roush, T. L.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Interpretation of satellite-measured bidirectional reflectance from Cirrus cloudy atmospheres

The interpretation of the observed bidirectional reflectance from cirrus cloudy atmospheres is presented. A theoretical model was developed for the computation of the transfer of solar radiation in an anisotropic medium with particular applications to oriented ice crystals in cirrus clouds. In this model, the adding principle for radiative transfer was used with modifications to account for the anisotropy of scattering particles and the associated scattering phase matrix. The single-scattering properties, including the phase function, single-scattering albedo, and extinction cross sections, were used for randomly and horizontally oriented hexagonal ice crystals in radiative transfer computations. The radiative transfer model developed for the cirrus clouds was modified to account for the scattering contributions from the atmosphere and the surface. In order to test the relevance and significance of the ice crystal model for the interpretation of observed bidirectional reflectance from satellites, visible radiances collected on the half hour by the GOES series were selected. The data are calibrated and corrected with the proper filter functions, then navigated to match selected landmark data. A number of clear and cloudy cases during the cirrus IFO of the Fire experiment were chosen for theoretical analyses. The cloud particle shape and size distributions that were taken during satellite overpasses are used in radiative transfer calculations. The sensitivities of the shape, orientation, and size distribution of ice crystals on the reflected intensities at the top of the atmosphere are investigated. Finally, the relative importance of these cloud microphysical properties in the interpretation of satellite bidirectional reflectance are assessed and presented.

Takano, Y.↗

NASA NTRS1989

The spatial distribution of infrared radiation from visible reflection nebulae

The emission at IRAS 12 and 25 micron bands of reflection nebulae is far in excess of that expected from the longer wavelength equilibrium thermal emission. The excess emission in the IRAS 12 micron band is a general phenomenon, seen in various components of interstellar medium such as IR cirrus clouds, H II regions, atomic and molecular clouds, and also normal spiral galaxies. This excess emission has been attributed to UV excited fluorescence in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) molecules or to the effect of temperature fluctuations in very small grains. Results are presented of studies of IRAS data on reflection nebulae selected from the van den Bergh reflection nebulae sample. Detailed scans of flux ratio and color temperature across the nebulae were obtained in order to study the spatial distribution of IR emission. A model was used to predict the spatial distribution of IR emission from dust grains illuminated by a B type star. The model was also used to explore the excitation of the IRAS 12 micron band emission as a function of stellar temperature. The model predictions are in good agreement with the analysis of reflection nebulae, illuminated by stars with stellar temperature ranging from 21,000 down to 3,000 K.

Luan, Ling↗

NASA NTRS1990

Radiative transfer based retrieval of reflectance from calibrated radiance imagery measured by an imaging spectrometer for lithological mapping of the Clark Mountains, California

Spectral radiance imagery measured by the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) are reduced to reflectance through compensation for atmospheric scattering, water vapor absorption, absorption of the well mixed gases, solar irradiance and the solar zenith angle. The LOWTRAN 7 (Kneizys et al., 1989) radiative transfer code form the basis for this retrieal. LOWTRAN 7 is constrained with water vapor determinations from the AVIRIS radiance data through an algorithm operating on the 940 nm atmospheric water band for every spatial element. In situ measurements of atmospheric optical depths are used to constrain the LOWTRAN 7 aerosol models. Accuracy of the retrieved reflectance spectra is evaluated with respect to surface spectra measured at the time of the overflight. The mineral bastnaesite is identified in the analysis of the retrieved reflectance imagery. These reflectance data provide a means to map the subtle mineral gradients in the PreCambrian block of the Clark Mountain range in southeastern California for geological analysis.

Green, Robert O.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Temporal versus spatial variation in leaf reflectance under changing water stress conditions

Leaf reflectance changes associated with changes in water stress were analyzed in two separate experiments. Results indicate that the variation in reflectance among collections of leaves of a given species all at the same level of water stress is at least as great as the variation in reflectance associated with changes in water stress for a given leaf collection of that species. The implications is that results from leaf reflectance-water stress studies have only limited applicability to the remote sensing of plant canopy water stress.

Cohen, Warren B.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Infrared reflectance spectra (4-12 micron) of lunar samples

Presented here are infrared reflectance spectra of a typical set of Apollo samples to illustrate spectral character in the mid-infrared (4 to 12 microns) of lunar materials and how the spectra varies among three main forms: soil, breccia, and igneous rocks. Reflectance data, to a close approximation, are the inverse of emission spectra; thus, for a given material the spectral reflectance (R) at any given wavelength is related to emission (E) by 1 - R equals E. Therefore, one can use reflectance spectra of lunar samples to predict how emission spectra of material on the lunar surface will appear to spectrometers on orbiting spacecraft or earthbound telescopes. Spectra were measured in the lab in dry air using a Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometer. Shown here is only the key portion (4 to 12 microns) of each spectrum relating to the principal spectral emission region for sunlit lunar materials and to where the most diagnostic spectral features occur.

Nash, Douglas B.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Calculating the bidirectional reflectance of natural vegetation covers using Boolean models and geometric optics

The bidirectional radiance or reflectance of a forest or woodland can be modeled using principles of geometric optics and Boolean models for random sets in a three dimensional space. This model may be defined at two levels, the scene includes four components; sunlight and shadowed canopy, and sunlit and shadowed background. The reflectance of the scene is modeled as the sum of the reflectances of the individual components as weighted by their areal proportions in the field of view. At the leaf level, the canopy envelope is an assemblage of leaves, and thus the reflectance is a function of the areal proportions of sunlit and shadowed leaf, and sunlit and shadowed background. Because the proportions of scene components are dependent upon the directions of irradiance and exitance, the model accounts for the hotspot that is well known in leaf and tree canopies.

Strahler, Alan H.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Geomorphology and reflectance patterns of vegetation-covered dunes at the Tsodilo Hills, north-west Botswana

Seasonal reflectance variations in semigrid environments provide a means of assessing vegetation health and density as well as monitoring landform processes. Multitemporal Landsat Thematic Mapper scenes with field measurements are used to map geomorphology and vegetation density in a stabilized dune environment and to measure seasonal reflectance changes for a series of ten geomorphological and vegetation units on the Kalahari-age linear dunes. Units were chosen based on differences in landform and proportion of trees, forbs and bare soil. Reflectance curves and normalized-difference vegetation indices (NDVI) show that dune crests have the strongest seasonal variability in color and brightness. The geomorphological link with reflectance and NDVI values are linked to biomass production and zoning of vegetation with slope, drainage and subtle soil differences.

Jacobberger, P. A.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Bidirectional reflectance, leaf optical and physiological properties of prairie vegetation

A modular multiband radiometer is used to measure reflected radiation from the vegetative surface of a prairie. The data are compared to estimates of incoming radiation by measuring the reflection from a molded halon panel, and the bidirectional reflectance factors are measured at seven view-zenith angles and various incidence angles. The canopy-reflectance results are compared to leaf-optical and other vegetative physiological properties, and a direct relationship is reported.

Walter-Shea, E. A.↗

NASA NTRS1991

On the reflectivity of complex mesh surfaces

Poorer than expected surface reflectivity was observed in an early Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System antenna utilizing a tricot mesh weave. This poor reflectivity was determined to be caused by inadequate electrical contact at wire crossover points. A proper mathematical and numerical approach to assess the impact of wire junctions on reflectivity performance is developed. A mathematical method is presented for computing the surface reflectivity of complex mesh configurations like those on unfurlable-type spacecraft antennas. The method is based on the Floquet mode expansion to establish an integral equation for mesh wire currents. The equation is solved using the method of moments with triangular basis functions. It is observed that it is necessary to give special attention to the junction treatment among different branches of the mesh configurations. A vector junction current approach that resulted in satisfactory solutions for the current is described. The results of numerical simulations are compared against measured data and excellent agreement is observed.

Imbriale, William A.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Biophysical information in asymmetric and symmetric diurnal bidirectional canopy reflectance

The authors present a theory for partitioning the information content in diurnal bidirectional reflectance measurements in order to detect differences potentially related to biophysical variables. The theory, which divides the canopy reflectance into asymmetric and symmetric functions of solar azimuth angle, attributes asymmetric variation to diurnal changes in the canopy biphysical properties. The symmetric function is attributed to the effects of sunlight interacting with a hypothetical average canopy which would display the average diurnal properties of the actual canopy. The authors analyzed radiometer data collected diurnally in the Thematic Mapper wavelength bands from two walnut canopies that received differing irrigation treatments. The reflectance of the canopies varied with sun and view angles and across seven bands in the visible, near-infrared, and middle infrared wavelength regions. Although one of the canopies was permanently water stressed and the other was stressed in mid-afternoon each day, no water stress signature was unambiguously evident in the reflectance data.

Vanderbilt, Vern C.↗

NASA NTRS1991

A disc-reflected component in the spectra of X-ray bursters

An argument is presented to the effect that a disk-reflected component should be present in the spectra of X-ray bursts and is best seen just after the burst peak when the reflected photons, delayed by their passage to the site of reflection, appear in stronger contrast to the fast-declining primary emission from the cooling neutron star. It is shown that disk reflection has an observable effect on the spectrum of the burst tail. The possible use of the concomitant absorption edge as a diagnostic of the accretion disk is discussed.

Day, C. S. R.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Klein-Gordon equation and reflection of Alfven waves in nonuniform media

A new analytical approach is presented for assessing the reflection of linear Alfven waves in smoothly nonuniform media. The general one-dimensional case in Cartesian coordinates is treated. It is shown that the wave equations, upon transformation into the form of the Klein-Gordon equation, display a local critical frequency for reflection. At any location in the medium, reflection becomes strong as the wave frequency descends past this characteristic frequency set by the local nonuniformity of the medium. This critical frequecy is given by the transformation as an explicit function of the Alfven velocity and its first and second derivatives, and hence as an explicit spatial function. The transformation thus directly yields, without solution of the wave equations, the location in the medium at which an Alfven wave of any given frequency becomes strongly reflected and has its propagation practically cut off.

Musielak, Z. E.↗

NASA NTRS1992

The impact of deep cumulus reflection on the ground-level global irradiance

The magnitude of solar irradiance reflected from deep cumulus clouds to the ground was evaluated using observations along the Front Range of Colorado. Solar-irradiance reflection around noon was found to cause increases of up to about 250 W/m sq. Enhancements of the global irradiance measured at the surface were observed to persist for 15-30 min. Occasionally, the increased global irradiance prevailed for a period of about 1 h. Model simulations implied similar patterns. It was evaluated that in some locations cloud reflection of solar irradiance may have a seasonal nonrandom pattern, thus increasing its significance. Estimation of the applied impact of cloud-reflected solar irradiance in several relevant situations is provided.

Segal, M.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Retrievals of surface reflectances from AVIRIS data

A method for retrieving surface reflectances from spectral data collected by the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) is being developed. In this method, the integrated water vapor amount on a pixel by pixel basis is derived from the 0.94- and 1.14-micron water vapor features. The water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and methane (CH4) transmission spectrum in the 0.4-2.5 micron region is calculated. The derived water vapor value and the solar and observational geometry are used in the calculation. The AVIRIS spectrum is ratioed against the transmission spectrum to obtain the surface reflectance spectrum. Major mineral absorption features near 2.2 microns in retrieved reflectance spectra can be identified. Different vegetation absorption characteristics are observed. At present, the method is most useful for deriving surface reflectances from AVIRIS data measured on clear days with high visibilities.

Gao, Bo-Cai↗