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NASA NTRS1997

Adaptive Performance Seeking Control Using Fuzzy Model Reference Learning Control and Positive Gradient Control

Performance Seeking Control attempts to find the operating condition that will generate optimal performance and control the plant at that operating condition. In this paper a nonlinear multivariable Adaptive Performance Seeking Control (APSC) methodology will be developed and it will be demonstrated on a nonlinear system. The APSC is comprised of the Positive Gradient Control (PGC) and the Fuzzy Model Reference Learning Control (FMRLC). The PGC computes the positive gradients of the desired performance function with respect to the control inputs in order to drive the plant set points to the operating point that will produce optimal performance. The PGC approach will be derived in this paper. The feedback control of the plant is performed by the FMRLC. For the FMRLC, the conventional fuzzy model reference learning control methodology is utilized, with guidelines generated here for the effective tuning of the FMRLC controller.

Kopasakis, George↗

NASA NTRS1997

Efficient Gradient-Based Shape Optimization Methodology Using Inviscid/Viscous CFD

The formerly developed preconditioned-biconjugate-gradient (PBCG) solvers for the analysis and the sensitivity equations had resulted in very large error reductions per iteration; quadratic convergence was achieved whenever the solution entered the domain of attraction to the root. Its memory requirement was also lower as compared to a direct inversion solver. However, this memory requirement was high enough to preclude the realistic, high grid-density design of a practical 3D geometry. This limitation served as the impetus to the first-year activity (March 9, 1995 to March 8, 1996). Therefore, the major activity for this period was the development of the low-memory methodology for the discrete-sensitivity-based shape optimization. This was accomplished by solving all the resulting sets of equations using an alternating-direction-implicit (ADI) approach. The results indicated that shape optimization problems which required large numbers of grid points could be resolved with a gradient-based approach. Therefore, to better utilize the computational resources, it was recommended that a number of coarse grid cases, using the PBCG method, should initially be conducted to better define the optimization problem and the design space, and obtain an improved initial shape. Subsequently, a fine grid shape optimization, which necessitates using the ADI method, should be conducted to accurately obtain the final optimized shape. The other activity during this period was the interaction with the members of the Aerodynamic and Aeroacoustic Methods Branch of Langley Research Center during one stage of their investigation to develop an adjoint-variable sensitivity method using the viscous flow equations. This method had algorithmic similarities to the variational sensitivity methods and the control-theory approach. However, unlike the prior studies, it was considered for the three-dimensional, viscous flow equations. The major accomplishment in the second period of this project (March 9, 1996 to March 8, 1997) was the extension of the shape optimization methodology for the Thin-Layer Navier-Stokes equations. Both the Euler-based and the TLNS-based analyses compared with the analyses obtained using the CFL3D code. The sensitivities, again from both levels of the flow equations, also compared very well with the finite-differenced sensitivities. A fairly large set of shape optimization cases were conducted to study a number of issues previously not well understood. The testbed for these cases was the shaping of an arrow wing in Mach 2.4 flow. All the final shapes, obtained either from a coarse-grid-based or a fine-grid-based optimization, using either a Euler-based or a TLNS-based analysis, were all re-analyzed using a fine-grid, TLNS solution for their function evaluations. This allowed for a more fair comparison of their relative merits. From the aerodynamic performance standpoint, the fine-grid TLNS-based optimization produced the best shape, and the fine-grid Euler-based optimization produced the lowest cruise efficiency.

Baysal, Oktay↗

NASA NTRS1998

Analysis of Curved Sandwich Panels Subjected to Combined Temperature Gradient and Mechanical Loads

The results of a detailed study of the nonlinear response of curved sandwich panels with composite face sheets and subjected to a temperature gradient through-the-thickness combined with mechanical loadings are presented. The analysis is based on a first-order shear-deformation Sanders-Budiansky type theory with the effects of large displacements, moderate rotations, transverse shear deformation and laminated anisotropic material behavior included. A mixed formulation is used with the fundamental unknowns consisting of the generalized displacements and the stress resultants of the panel. The nonlinear displacements, strain energy, principal strains, transverse shear stresses, transverse shear strain energy density, and their hierarchical sensitivity coefficients are evaluated. The hierarchical sensitivity coefficients measure the sensitivity of the nonlinear response to variations in the panel parameters, the effective properties of the face sheet layers and the core, and the micromechanical parameters. Numerical results are presented for cylindrical panels subjected to combined pressure loading, edge shortening or extension, edge shear and a temperature gradient through the thickness. The results show the effects of variations in the loading and the panel aspect ratio, on the nonlinear response and its sensitivity to changes in the various panel, effective layer and micromechanical parameters.

Noor, Ahmed K.↗

NASA NTRS1959

A Simple Method for Determining Heat Transfer, Skin Friction, and Boundary-Layer Thickness for Hypersonic Laminar Boundary-Layer Flows in a Pressure Gradient

A procedure based on the method of similar solutions is presented by which the skin friction, heat transfer, and boundary-layer thickness in a laminar hypersonic flow with pressure gradient may be rapidly evaluated if the pressure distribution is known. This solution, which at present is. restricted to power-law variations of pressure with surface distance, is presented for a wide range of exponents in the power law corresponding to both favorable and adverse pressure gradients. This theory has been compared to results from heat-transfer experiments on blunt-nose flat plates and a hemisphere cylinder at free-stream Mach numbers of 4 and 6.8. The flat-plate experiments included tests made at a Mach number of 6.8 over a range of angle of attack of +/- 10 deg. Reasonable agreement of the experimental and theoretical heat-transfer coefficients has been obtained as well as good correlation of the experimental results over the entire range of angle of attack studied. A similar comparison of theory with experiment was not feasible for boundary-layer-thickness data; however, the hypersonic similarity theory was found to account satisfactorily for the variation in boundary-layer thickness due to local pressure distribution for several sets of measurements.

Bertram, Mitchel H.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Effects of Adverse Pressure Gradient on the Incompressible Reattaching Flow Over a Rearward-Facing Step

The turbulent, incompressible reattaching flow over a rearward-facing step has been studied by many researchers over the years. One of the principal quantities determined in these experiments has been the distance from the step to the point (or region) where the separated shear layer reattaches to the surface (x(r)). The values for x(r)/h, where h is the step height, have covered a wider range than can reasonably be attributed to experimental technique or inaccuracy. Often the reason for a largely different value of x(r)/h can be attributed to an incompletely developed turbulent layer, or a transitional or laminar boundary layer. However, for the majority of experiments where the boundary layer is believed to be fully developed and turbulent, x(r)/h still varies several step heights; generally, 5 1/2 approximately < x(r)/h approximately < 7 1/2. This observed variation has usually been attributed to such variables as l/h (step length to height, h/delta (step height to initial boundary-layer thickness), R(e)(theta)), or the experimental technique for determining reattachment location. However, there are so many different combinations of variables in the previous experiments that it was not possible to sort out the effects of particular conditions on the location of reattachment. In the present experiment velocity profiles have been measured in and around the region of separated flow. Results show a large influence of adverse pressure gradient on the reattaching flow over a rearward-facing step that has not been reported previously. Further, the many previous experiments for fully developed, turbulent flow in parallel-walled channels have shown a range of reattachment location that has not been explained by differences in initial flow conditions. Although these initial flow conditions might contribute to the observed variation of reattachment location, it appears that the pressure gradient effect can explain most of that variation.

Kuehn, Donald M.↗

NASA NTRS1999

A Single-Lap Joint Adhesive Bonding Optimization Method Using Gradient and Genetic Algorithms

A natural process for any engineer, scientist, educator, etc. is to seek the most efficient method for accomplishing a given task. In the case of structural design, an area that has a significant impact on the structural efficiency is joint design. Unless the structure is machined from a solid block of material, the individual components which compose the overall structure must be joined together. The method for joining a structure varies depending on the applied loads, material, assembly and disassembly requirements, service life, environment, etc. Using both metallic and fiber reinforced plastic materials limits the user to two methods or a combination of these methods for joining the components into one structure. The first is mechanical fastening and the second is adhesive bonding. Mechanical fastening is by far the most popular joining technique; however, in terms of structural efficiency, adhesive bonding provides a superior joint since the load is distributed uniformly across the joint. The purpose of this paper is to develop a method for optimizing single-lap joint adhesive bonded structures using both gradient and genetic algorithms and comparing the solution process for each method. The goal of the single-lap joint optimization is to find the most efficient structure that meets the imposed requirements while still remaining as lightweight, economical, and reliable as possible. For the single-lap joint, an optimum joint is determined by minimizing the weight of the overall joint based on constraints from adhesive strengths as well as empirically derived rules. The analytical solution of the sin-le-lap joint is determined using the classical Goland-Reissner technique for case 2 type adhesive joints. Joint weight minimization is achieved using a commercially available routine, Design Optimization Tool (DOT), for the gradient solution while an author developed method is used for the genetic algorithm solution. Results illustrate the critical design variables as a function of adhesive properties and convergences of different joints based on the two optimization methods.

Smeltzer, Stanley S., III↗

NASA NTRS2000

A Technique for Rapidly Deploying a Concentration Gradient with Applications to Microgravity

The latter half of the last century has seen rapid advancements in semiconductor crystal growth powered by the demand for high performance electronics in myriad applications. The reduced gravity environment of space has also been used for crystal growth tests, especially in instances where terrestrial growth has largely been unsuccessful. While reduced gravity crystal growth affords some control of the gravity parameter, many crystals grown in space, to date, have structural flaws believed to result from convective motions during the growth phase. The character of these instabilities is not well understood but is associated with thermal and solutal density variations near the solidification interface in the presence of residual gravity and g-jitter. In order to study these instabilities in a separate, controlled space experiment, a concentration gradient would first have to be artificially established in a timely manner as an initial condition. This is generally difficult to accomplish in a microgravity environment because the momentum of the fluid injected into a test cell tends to swirl around and mix in the absence of a restoring force. The use of magnetic fields to control the motion and position of liquids has received growing interest in recent times. The possibility of using the force exerted by a non-uniform magnetic field on a ferrofluid to not only achieve fluid manipulation but also to actively control fluid motion makes it an attractive candidate for space applications. This paper describes a technique for quickly establishing a linear or exponential fluid concentration gradient using a magnetic field in place of gravity to stabilize the deployment. Also discussed is a photometric technique for measuring the concentration profile using light attenuation. Results of the ground-based experiments indicate that the concentration distribution is within 3% of the predicted value. Although any range of concentations can be realized, photometric constraints are discussed which impose some limitations on measurements.

Leslie, Fred↗

NASA NTRS1997

A Novel Microcharacterization Technique in the Measurement of Strain and Orientation Gradient in Advanced Materials

Representation of morphology and evolution of the microstructure during processing and their relation to properties requires proper experimental techniques. Residual strains, lattice distortion, and texture (micro-texture) at the interface and the matrix of a layered structure or a functionally gradient material and their variation are among parameters important in materials characterization but hard to measure with present experimental techniques. Current techniques available to measure changes in interred material parameters (residual stress, micro-texture, microplasticity) produce results which are either qualitative or unreliable. This problem becomes even more complicated in the case of a temperature variation. These parameters affect many of the mechanical properties of advanced materials including stress-strain relation, ductility, creep, and fatigue. A review of some novel experimental techniques using recent advances in electron microscopy is presented here to measure internal stress, (micro)texture, interracial strength and (sub)grain formation and realignment. Two of these techniques are combined in the chamber of an Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope to measure strain and orientation gradients in advanced materials. These techniques which include Backscattered Kikuchi Diffractometry (BKD) and Microscopic Strain Field Analysis are used to characterize metallic and intermetallic matrix composites and superplastic materials. These techniques are compared with the more conventional x-ray diffraction and indentation techniques.

Garmestai, H.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Measurement of the Turbulence Kinetic Energy Budget of a Turbulent Planar Wake Flow in Pressure Gradients

Turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) is a very important quantity for turbulence modeling and the budget of this quantity in its transport equation can provide insight into the flow physics. Turbulence kinetic energy budget measurements were conducted for a symmetric turbulent wake flow subjected to constant zero, favorable and adverse pressure gradients in year-three of research effort. The purpose of this study is to clarify the flow physics issues underlying the demonstrated influence of pressure gradient on wake development and provide experimental support for turbulence modeling. To ensure the reliability of these notoriously difficult measurements, the experimental procedure was carefully designed on the basis of an uncertainty analysis. Four different approaches, based on an isotropic turbulence assumption, a locally axisymmetric homogeneous turbulence assumption, a semi-isotropy assumption and a forced balance of the TKE equation, were applied for the estimate of the dissipation term. The pressure transport term is obtained from a forced balance of the turbulence kinetic energy equation. This report will present the results of the turbulence kinetic energy budget measurement and discuss their implication on the development of strained turbulent wakes.

Liu, Xiao-Feng↗

NASA NTRS2001

Effectiveness of Micro-Blowing Technique in Adverse Pressure Gradients

The impact of the micro-blowing technique (MBT) on the skin friction and total drag of a strut in a turbulent, strong adverse-pressure-gradient flow is assessed experimentally over a range of subsonic Mach numbers (0.3 less than M less than 0.7) and reduced blowing fractions (0 less than or equal to 2F/C (sub f,o) less than or equal to 1.75). The MBT-treated strut is situated along the centerline of a symmetric 2-D diffuser with a static pressure rise coefficient of 0.6. In agreement with presented theory and earlier experiments in zero-pressure-gradient flows, the effusion of blowing air reduces skin friction significantly (e.g., by 60% at reduced blowing fractions near 1.75). The total drag of the treated strut with blowing is significantly lower than that of the treated strut in the limit of zero-blowing; further, the total drag is reduced below that of the baseline (solid-plate) strut, provided that the reduced blowing fractions are sufficiently high. The micro-blowing air is, however, deficient in streamwise momentum and the blowing leads to increased boundary-layer and wake thicknesses and shape factors. Diffuser performance metrics and wake surveys are used to discuss the impact of various levels of micro-blowing on the aerodynamic blockage and loss.

Welch, Gerard E.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Gradient Cyclic Behavior of Refractory Silicate Coatings on SiC/SiC Ceramic Matrix Composites

Plasma-sprayed mullite and BSAS coatings have been developed to protect SiC/SiC ceramic matrix composites from high temperature environmental attack. In this study, thermal conductivity and thermal barrier functions of these coating systems are evaluated using a laser high-heat-flux test rig. The effects of water vapor on coating thermal conductivity and durability are studied by using alternating furnace and laser thermal gradient cyclic tests. The influence of laser high thermal-gradient cycling on coating failure modes is also investigated.

Zhu, Dongming↗

NASA NTRS2002

Flow Control Device Evaluation for an Internal Flow with an Adverse Pressure Gradient

The effectiveness of several active and passive devices to control flow in an adverse pressure gradient with secondary flows present was evaluated in the 15 Inch Low Speed Tunnel at NASA Langley Research Center. In this study, passive micro vortex generators, micro bumps, and piezoelectric synthetic jets were evaluated for their flow control characteristics using surface static pressures, flow visualization, and 3D Stereo Digital Particle Image Velocimetry. Data also were acquired for synthetic jet actuators in a zero flow environment. It was found that the micro vortex generator is very effective in controlling the flow environment for an adverse pressure gradient, even in the presence of secondary vortical flow. The mechanism by which the control is effected is a re-energization of the boundary layer through flow mixing. The piezoelectric synthetic jet actuators must have sufficient velocity output to produce strong longitudinal vortices if they are to be effective for flow control. The output of these devices in a laboratory or zero flow environment will be different than the output in a flow environment. In this investigation, the output was higher in the flow environment, but the stroke cycle in the flow did not indicate a positive inflow into the synthetic jet.

Jenkins, Luther N.↗

NASA NTRS1995

Study of the Effect of Two-Dimensional Cavities on the Boundary Layer in an Adverse Pressure Gradient

One concept for high lift aerodynamics is the trapped-vortex. Recently it has been suggested that several spoilers located at different chordwise locations on an airfoil could be deployed to form several cavities in the chordwise direction. This may provide a means of increasing upper surface camber and thereby increase wing lift. It is envisioned that the cavities would be located on an airfoil in its pressure recovery region. Investigations of the effect of one or more cavities on the adjacent boundary layer in an adverse boundary layer were not found in a literature survey. Since flow separation can be caused by flow over cavities, boundary layer measurements were made in the vicinity of cavities which were located in an adverse pressure gradient to study the associated flow in an effort to identify any benefits. The experimental data from the present investigation indicate a minimal impact on the boundary layer profiles is caused by the presence of cavities in either a constant pressure freestream or an adverse pressure gradient. The data from the experimental investigation has been obtained and analyzed. The computational investigation using an incompressible Navier-Stokes code show that reasonable results are being obtained when they are compared with the experimental data.

Margason, Richard J.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Cyclic Failure Mechanisms of Thermal and Environmental Barrier Coating Systems Under Thermal Gradient Test Conditions

Plasma-sprayed ZrO2-8wt%Y2O3 and mullite+BSAS/Si multilayer thermal and environmental barrier coating (TBC-EBC) systems on SiC/SiC ceramic matrix composite (CMC) substrates were thermally cyclic tested under high thermal gradients using a laser high-heat-flux rig in conjunction with furnace exposure in water-vapor environments. Coating sintering and interface damage were assessed by monitoring the real-time thermal conductivity changes during the laser heat-flux tests and by examining the microstructural changes after exposure. Sintering kinetics of the coating systems were also independently characterized using a dilatometer. It was found that the coating failure involved both the time-temperature dependent sintering and the cycle frequency dependent cyclic fatigue processes. The water vapor environments not only facilitated the initial coating conductivity increases due to enhanced sintering and interface reaction, but also promoted later conductivity reductions due to the accelerated coating cracking and delamination. The failure mechanisms of the coating systems are also discussed based on the cyclic test results and are correlated to the sintering and thermal stress behavior under the thermal gradient test conditions.

Zhu, Dongming↗

NASA NTRS2002

Thermal Gradient Cyclic Behavior of a Thermal/Environmental Barrier Coating System on SiC/SiC Ceramic Matrix Composites

Thermal barrier and environmental barrier coatings (TBCs and EBCs) will play a crucial role in future advanced gas turbine engines because of their ability to significantly extend the temperature capability of the ceramic matrix composite (CMC) engine components in harsh combustion environments. In order to develop high performance, robust coating systems for effective thermal and environmental protection of the engine components, appropriate test approaches for evaluating the critical coating properties must be established. In this paper, a laser high-heat-flux, thermal gradient approach for testing the coatings will be described. Thermal cyclic behavior of plasma-sprayed coating systems, consisting of ZrO2-8wt%Y2O3 thermal barrier and NASA Enabling Propulsion Materials (EPM) Program developed mullite+BSAS/Si type environmental barrier coatings on SiC/SiC ceramic matrix composites, was investigated under thermal gradients using the laser heat-flux rig in conjunction with the furnace thermal cyclic tests in water-vapor environments. The coating sintering and interface damage were assessed by monitoring the real-time thermal conductivity changes during the laser heat-flux tests and by examining the microstructural changes after the tests. The coating failure mechanisms are discussed based on the cyclic test results and are correlated to the sintering, creep, and thermal stress behavior under simulated engine temperature and heat flux conditions.

Zhu, Dongming↗

NASA NTRS1999

Computation of Turbulent Wake Flows in Variable Pressure Gradient

Transport aircraft performance is strongly influenced by the effectiveness of high-lift systems. Developing wakes generated by the airfoil elements are subjected to strong pressure gradients and can thicken very rapidly, limiting maximum lift. This paper focuses on the effects of various pressure gradients on developing symmetric wakes and on the ability of a linear eddy viscosity model and a non-linear explicit algebraic stress model to accurately predict their downstream evolution. In order to reduce the uncertainties arising from numerical issues when assessing the performance of turbulence models, three different numerical codes with the same turbulence models are used. Results are compared to available experimental data to assess the accuracy of the computational results.

Duquesne, N.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Survival after aortic valve replacement for severe aortic stenosis with low transvalvular gradients and severe left ventricular dysfunction

OBJECTIVE: We sought to assess whether aortic valve replacement (AVR) among patients with severe aortic stenosis (AS), severe left ventricular (LV) dysfunction and a low transvalvular gradient (TVG) is associated with improved survival. BACKGROUND: The optimal management of patients with severe AS with severe LV dysfunction and a low TVG remains controversial. METHODS: Between 1990 and 1998, we evaluated 68 patients who underwent AVR at our institution (AVR group) and 89 patients who did not undergo AVR (control group), with an aortic valve area < or = 0.75 cm(2), LV ejection fraction < or = 35% and mean gradient < or = 30 mm Hg. Using propensity analysis, survival was compared between a cohort of 39 patients in the AVR group and 56 patients in the control group. RESULTS: Despite well-matched baseline characteristics among propensity-matched patients, the one- and four-year survival rates were markedly improved in patients in the AVR group (82% and 78%), as compared with patients in the control group (41% and 15%; p < 0.0001). By multivariable analysis, the main predictor of improved survival was AVR (adjusted risk ratio 0.19, 95% confidence interval 0.09 to 0.39; p < 0.0001). The only other predictors of mortality were age and the serum creatinine level. CONCLUSIONS: Among select patients with severe AS, severe LV dysfunction and a low TVG, AVR was associated with significantly improved survival.

NASA Discipline Cardiopulmonary↗

NASA NTRS1992

Comparison of developmental gradients for growth, ATPase, and fusicoccin-binding activity in mung bean hypocotyls

A comparison has been made of the developmental gradients along a mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) hypocotyl of the growth rate, plasma membrane ATPase, and fusicoccin-binding protein (FCBP) activity to determine whether they are interrelated. The hook and four sequential 7.5 millimeter segments of the hypocotyl below the hook were cut. A plasma membrane-enriched fraction was isolated from each section by aqueous two-phase partitioning and assayed for vanadate-sensitive ATPase and FCBP activity. Each gradient had a distinctive and different pattern. Endogenous growth rate was maximal in the second section and much lower in the others. Vanadate-sensitive ATPase activity was maximal in the third section, but remained high in the older sections. Amounts of ATPase protein, shown by specific antibody binding, did not correlate with the amount of vanadate-sensitive ATPase activity in the three youngest sections. FCBP activity was almost absent in the first section, then increased to a maximum in the oldest sections. These data show that the growth rate is not determined by the ATPase activity, and that there are no fixed ratios between the ATPase and FCBP.

Non-NASA Center↗