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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 613 records · Page 34
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Cold air quench control of local crystallization environment in fully air-processed carbon-based perovskite solar cells

Carbon-based perovskite solar cells (C-PSCs) present a low-cost route to efficient photovoltaic technology. Gas quenching is an essential process commonly used for solvent extraction in scalable module fabrication using solution processes, but film quality remains highly sensitive to the localized environmental processing temperature, especially during intermediate phase transitions before perovskite film high temperature annealing. In this study, we introduce a cold air quench strategy to precisely control the local crystallization temperature that simultaneously promotes uniform crystallization and facilitates strain relaxation in fully air-processed C-PSCs. It is found that implementing dry air at 10 °C as the quenching gas yields a champion power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 20.52 %, with preferential (110) orientation and reduced, homogenized in-plane strain. This newly developed technique of a cost-effective low temperature air quenching process also enhances carrier lifetime, reduces interface recombination, and improves charge extraction. Furthermore, this work presents cold air quenching as a scalable, economic method to control perovskite crystallization and strain in C-PSC fabrication, advancing the industrial viability of high-performance perovskite modules.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Two-phase flow numerical analysis of electrode geometry for alkaline water electrolyzers

Hydrogen is a promising component of a future energy-secure and efficient economy, but its competitiveness depends on reducing production costs. One strategy is to operate alkaline water electrolyzers at higher current densities to increase output. However, this intensifies performance losses due to gas bubble accumulation, which blocks transport pathways and deactivates electrochemically active surfaces. Enhancing bubble evacuation through electrode design is therefore essential. Previous studies have explored various approaches — such as modifying surface morphology, applying sonication or pressure modulation, and introducing surfactants — but these efforts have addressed a limited range of conditions due to the complexity of two-phase flow and electrode geometries. Experiments have also largely been focused on either cell level improvements, which lack the information necessary to isolate each contributing factor, or on modified geometries that are not relevant to practical cell operation. From a modeling perspective, conventional Eulerian multiphase models do not track the complex gas–liquid interfacial dynamics and often neglect surface tension and contact angle effects, reducing their predictive accuracy. To provide insights on the effects of different electrode geometries on the performance of alklaine water electrolyzers this work employs an immersed boundary volume-of-fluid method to simulate bubble behavior in 3D porous electrodes. Multiple base electrode geometries, typically used in practice, with varying porosity are evaluated under a constant surface gas generation rate. Simulation data is analyzed to quantify electrode gas coverage, bubble size dynamics and other relevant metrics. Results show that porosity strongly influences bubble accumulation on electrode surfaces, with higher porosity reducing gas coverage, and its not strictly dependent on the electrode geometry. However, the electrode’s base geometry significantly affects gas accumulation at the separator gap, independent of porosity. A foam electrode geometry resulted in the lowest gas coverage of all electrodes with a median volumetric gas coverage of 11%, but at the cost of a 70% reduction in active area compared with the largest surface area electrode, while gyroid electrodes showed the best trade-off between gas coverage, particularly at the separator surface, and electrochemically active area. In conclusion, the results highlight the need for holistic electrode design strategies.

Alkaline↗
DOE OSTI2026

Improbability of Post-Closure Criticality in Array of Transuranic Waste Containers after Compaction by Salt Creep at Waste Isolation Pilot Plant

Based on the rationale presented, post-closure nuclear criticality is improbable when room closure compacts containers disposing transuranic (TRU) waste emplaced at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP), an operating repository in bedded salt in southeastern New Mexico. As described in the original WIPP certification, a qualitative estimate of the probability of post-closure criticality in TRU waste produced from atomic energy defense activities has been low either because remote-handled TRU waste canisters are neutronically isolated by the bedded salt or because the low fissile mass in an array of contact-handled TRU waste drums cannot be compacted sufficiently by room closure from salt creep. These situations are still valid for the majority of TRU waste that is disposed at WIPP without any disposal constraints, as updated herein. This report also qualitatively evaluates the probability of criticality after disposal of TRU waste in pipe overpack containers (POC) where every POC in a shipment may have the maximum 200 fissile gram equivalent of 239Pu content. The probability of criticality for a disposal room filled with POCs is estimated during four representative phases of repository evolution: (1) a large salt block falls onto POCs in the first 20 years, (2) salt creep closes a disposal room in the first 1000 years without brine seepage and subsequent gas generation, which permits maximum compaction, (3) some brine seepage occurs into the closed room, which initiates consumption of the fiberboard (cellulose) impact absorber in the POC in the second 1000 years, and (4) full brine inundation of a room and consumption of all fiberboard thereafter. Salt-block fall in the first phase does not greatly disrupt three tiers of POCs. The compacted spacing of POCs in the later three repository conditions is calculated through high-fidelity, geomechanical modeling. Criticality evaluation of compacted 200-g 239 Pu spheres at the compacted spacing shows that neither 12-inch nor 6-inch POCs are critical after the first 1000 years, the second 1000 years, or thereafter as the sea of reflector material changes to represent the three repository conditions. Specifically, fiberboard and iron isolates 239 Pu while dry, and brine reduces the reactivity when a room is partially and fully inundated. Because POC behavior bounds behavior of other standard TRU waste containers, post-closure criticality caused by room closure compacting containers is omitted in the performance assessments for the 2019 and 2026 WIPP compliance re-certification applications to the US Environmental Protection Agency.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2024

Adaptive Solar Energy and Power Storage Platform for Multimetered Properties

Veritel Energy LLC has successfully demonstrated the feasibility of its innovative adaptive solar energy and power storage platform designed for multimetered properties in Phase I of its DOE SBIR grant. The project centered around the development and initial deployment of proprietary hardware and software system that manages and distributes site-generated renewable energy to multiple tenants efficiently. This system integrates seamlessly with existing building infrastructure and utility systems, making it a viable solution for aging multifamily properties often located in at-risk communities. The pilot system was installed in a multifamily building with a single master-meter, and functioned as a pilot to demonstrate a scalable model for renewable energy system adoption across similar properties. This installation not only showed potential for significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions but also improved the economic viability of renewable installations by allowing property owners to recoup investments through increased energy savings and tenant billing. The Phase I project set the groundwork for further enhancements and testing in Phase II which will aim to apply the technology to projects with dozens of sub-meters, further contributing to the decarbonization of the built environment.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Fully quantum algorithm for mesoscale fluid simulations with application to partial differential equations

Fluid flow simulations marshal our most powerful computational resources. In many cases, even this is not enough. Quantum computers provide an opportunity to speed up traditional algorithms for flow simulations. We show that lattice-based mesoscale numerical methods can be executed as efficient quantum algorithms due to their statistical features. This approach revises a quantum algorithm for lattice gas automata to reduce classical computations and state preparation at every time step. For this, the algorithm approximates the qubit relative phases and subtracts them at the end of each time step. Phases are evaluated using the iterative phase estimation algorithm and subtracted using single-qubit rotation phase gates. Further, this method optimizes the quantum resource required and makes it more appropriate for near-term quantum hardware. We also demonstrate how the checkerboard deficiency that the D1Q2 scheme presents can be resolved using the D1Q3 scheme. The algorithm is validated by simulating two canonical partial differential equations: the diffusion and Burgers' equations on different quantum simulators. We find good agreement between quantum simulations and classical solutions for the presented algorithm.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Electrochemically driven carbon dioxide separation

This project explored the viability of a Ni(OH) 2 based hydroxide exchange membrane carbon capture (HEMCC) device for direct air capture. It is built off an H 2 fuel cell based HEMCC previously developed in the Yushan Yan group at University of Delaware. Taking the same membrane-based, electrochemically driven pH gradient concept, similar flux performance was able to be seen in the Ni(OH) 2 system as the H 2 system when using comparable current densities. The project produced two types of membrane electrode assemblies (MEA). The first was a traditional MEA with two electrodes and a membrane, the second was a flow-through membrane MEA. Consistent performance was achieved with the traditional MEA with an energy cost of 1.1 MWh∙ton -1 and flux of 82 kg∙m -2 ∙yr -1 . This was the most stable of the two designs. This project investigated strategies to improve performance with a flow-through membrane design. Two designs were made, one with a cast phase inversion membrane, and one with powdered membrane layer. The template phase inversion membrane achieved low pressure drop but had performance limitations due to a skin layer of membrane limiting CO 2 gas transport. The powdered membrane layer had better performance but higher pressure drop. Finally, using the powdered membrane, commercial battery materials were able to be used in order to achieve higher flux. This showed that the flow through membrane design does have the capability to overcome flux inefficiencies in the traditional MEA. Moreover, the process design of the system is proposed and given in this project. The process mass and energy balances were calculated for a reference plant of 1000 t/yr CO 2 capture, which contains several subsystems, e.g. air processing subsystem, electrical subsystem, and CO 2 purification and compression subsystem is designed and evaluated. Based on our calculation, When the power consumption for stack is 1 MWh t -1 CO 2 , Additional 382 kWh t -1 CO 2 will be consumed by other subsystem of the plant, i.e. The total power consumption of 1.38 MWh t -1 CO 2 , lower than the final milestone of 1.5 MWh t -1 CO 2 in this project.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2025

Computational Design of Cost-Effective High-Entropy Thermal/Environmental Barrier Coatings

Developing cost-effective thermal/environmental barrier coatings (TEBC) requires balance among various properties including low thermal conductivity, matching coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), high thermal stability, high fracture toughness, and high recession resistance while being affordable. Low oxygen diffusivity is desirable as it can slow down oxygen transport to reach the underlying bond coating and hence delay oxidation of the bond coating. This project aims to design low-cost high-performance TEBC based on high entropy rare earth disilicates to protect SiC-based ceramic matrix composites from chemical and thermal attack for better performance of components in the hot section of gas turbine engines. To accelerate the TEBC design, we utilize first-principles density functional theory to predict key properties including phase stability, CTE, lattice thermal conductivity, temperature-dependent elastic constants, and oxygen diffusivity. Alloying elements including Yb, Y, Er, Eu, Gd, Lu, La, and Ce are considered, and modeling prediction are compared with available experimental results.

coefficient of thermal expansion↗
DOE OSTI2025

Plastic Additive, Sorbent-Coated, Thermally Integrated Contactor for CO 2 Capture (PLASTIC4CO2) (Final Report)

Final report for Plastic Additive, Sorbent-Coated, Thermally Integrated Contactor for CO2 Capture (PLASTIC4CO2) DE-FE-0032132. The goal of the work was to investigate at a technology readiness level of 3 (TRL 3), the proof of concept of an additively printed plastic 2-channel heat exchanger/sorbent contactor system to achieve a 15% lower levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) than a baseline liquid phase amine adsorber system for 90% and 95% capture of CO 2 from both a 7F02 2x1CC and 7HA02 2x1CC natural gas turbines.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Excitonic Mott insulator in a Bose-Fermi-Hubbard system of moiré WS 2 /WSe 2 heterobilayer

Understanding the Hubbard model is crucial for investigating various quantum many-body states and its fermionic and bosonic versions have been largely realized separately. Recently, transition metal dichalcogenides heterobilayers have emerged as a promising platform for simulating the rich physics of the Hubbard model. In this work, we explore the interplay between fermionic and bosonic populations, using a WS 2 /WSe 2 heterobilayer device that hosts this hybrid particle density. We independently tune the fermionic and bosonic populations by electronic doping and optical injection of electron-hole pairs, respectively. This enables us to form strongly interacting excitons that are manifested in a large energy gap in the photoluminescence spectrum. The incompressibility of excitons is further corroborated by observing a suppression of exciton diffusion with increasing pump intensity, as opposed to the expected behavior of a weakly interacting gas of bosons, suggesting the formation of a bosonic Mott insulator. We explain our observations using a two-band model including phase space filling. Our system provides a controllable approach to the exploration of quantum many-body effects in the generalized Bose-Fermi-Hubbard model.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Characterization of Fuel-to-Coolant Heat Transfer During Reactivity-Initiated Accidents Using Tightly Coupled Thermal Hydraulics and Fuel Thermomechanics

The reactivity-initiated accident (RIA) is a complex scenario with several tightly interacting physical phenomena. Accurately predicting fuel behavior during these transients is difficult due to limitations in the modeling of fuel-to-coolant heat transfer. Common approaches to simulate RIAs involve standalone calculations using either a fuel performance code or a thermal-hydraulic code. The complex interdependencies of thermal-hydraulic and fuel mechanical behavior suggest that a tight coupling between these codes may provide more accurate predictions of fuel-to-coolant heat transfer and cladding mechanical response. Here, RELAP5-3D and BISON are coupled in this paper to simulate RIAs, and a sensitivity analysis is performed to rank key thermal properties and two-phase heat transfer parameters relevant for fuel-to-coolant heat transfer and cladding failure mechanisms in UO 2 –Zircaloy-4 systems. Gas gap conductance, film boiling heat transfer uncertainty, pulse width, fuel-specific heat capacity, and cladding-specific heat capacity were identified as important parameters. Variations in figures of merit resulting from changes to pulse width and the material thermal properties indicate that time-dependent heat transfer rates are significant for safety-relevant mechanical parameters due to the time dependence of cladding ductility and pellet-cladding mechanical interaction loading. The results suggest that the thermal-hydraulic factors have a nonnegligible influence on the thermomechanical solution and vice versa. Tight coupling of both sets of physics is recommended to improve prediction of fuel behavior during RIAs. Highlights include the following: 1. The RELAP5-3D thermal-hydraulic code and the BISON fuel performance code are tightly coupled for simulation of RIA transients with energy depositions at the Zircaloy-4 cladding failure threshold. 2. Departure from nucleate boiling occurred for all simulated cases. Due to the ductility of fresh fuel, substantial ballooning occurred in most cases. 3. Gas gap conductance, fuel-specific heat capacity, cladding-specific heat capacity, transient pulse width, and film boiling heat transfer were the dominant thermal factors impacting the safety figures of merit at energy depositions.

Critical Heat Flux (CHF)↗
DOE OSTI2026

XRISM high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy of Cygnus X-1: Orbital and short-term variability of iron absorption

We present the first high-resolution spectroscopy of the black hole high-mass X-ray binary Cygnus X-1 with XRISM, including orbital-phase-resolved analyses and tentative evidence of short-term variability in the Fe K band on second timescales. Using data from the Performance Verification phase in 2024 April, we analyzed spectral variability across orbital phases with the Resolve microcalorimeter and the Xtend CCD imager. The unprecedented resolution of Resolve reveals variability in highly ionized Fe absorption lines. The absorption features show orbital-phase-dependent variability in column density, ionization state, and blueshifted velocity, suggesting structural variations in the focused stellar wind along the line of sight. We also find indications of subtle broadening of the neutral Fe emission profile. In addition, intensity-sorted spectroscopy during dip phases suggests possible variability on timescales of a few seconds in the absorption features, consistent with cooler, denser, and lower-ionized gas clumps. Although the statistical significance is limited, these results hint that the stellar wind and the X-rays from the accretion disk around the black hole may interact on timescales as short as a few seconds. These XRISM results constrain wind-fed accretion in Cyg X-1 and highlight Resolve’s capability to probe plasma environments in high-mass X-ray binaries.

Astronomy and AstroPhysics↗
DOE OSTI2025

Gaussian-process generative model for the QCD equation of state

We develop a generative model for the nuclear matter equation of state at zero net baryon density using the Gaussian process regression method. We impose first-principles theoretical constraints from lattice quantum chromodynamics and hadron resonance gas at high- and low-temperature regions, respectively. By allowing the trained Gaussian process regression model to vary freely near the phase transition region, we generate random smooth crossover equations of state with different speeds of sound that do not rely on specific parametrizations. Here, we explore a collection of experimental observable dependencies on the generated equations of state, which paves the groundwork for future Bayesian inference studies to use experimental measurements from relativistic heavy-ion collisions to constrain the nuclear matter equation of state.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

IMPACT-01 Assembly Overview [Slides]

The Irradiated Material Properties Accelerated Characterization Test (IMPACT) series of experiments will irradiate three metallic fuel alloy specimens with embedded thermal conductivity probes in the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR). Metallic fuel alloys have long been under investigation for use in advanced reactors on account of their high thermal conductivity. Metallic fuel undergoes dramatic microstructural changes early in life due to fission gas swelling until ~2-3 at% burnup when pores interconnect, thus allowing fission gas to escape into the fuel pin plenum and swelling effectively ceases. The evolution of metallic fuel thermal conductivity during this early phase has never been successfully measured in situ. This experiment will be designed to use advances in measurement sciences to characterize how thermal transport properties evolve while in reactor. The IMPACT experiment consists of three metallic fuel rodlets with thermal conductivity probes axially centered within the fuel specimen. This presentation is an overview of the IMPACT-01 assembly process with a focus MFC fuel fabrication and experiment assembly steps.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Unit-density SU(3) Fermi-Hubbard model with spin-flavor imbalance

The advent of ultracold alkaline-earth atoms in optical lattices has established a platform for investigating correlated quantum matter with SU⁡(𝑁) symmetry, offering highly tunable model parameters that allow experiments to access phenomena that are unavailable in conventional materials. Understanding the ground-state physics of SU⁡(𝑁) Fermi-Hubbard models away from the Heisenberg limit and from the spin-flavor balanced setting is important, as examining the flavor imbalance reveals new physics in Fermi-Hubbard models and shows how SU⁡(𝑁) phases react to practical experimental imperfections in optical lattices. Here, in this study, mean-field phase diagrams are presented for the unit-density SU(3) Fermi-Hubbard model at two sets of flavor densities, ($\frac{1}{3}$ − 𝛿, $\frac{1}{3}$ + 𝛿, $\frac{1}{3}$) and ($\frac{1}{4}$ − 𝛿, $\frac{1}{4}$ +𝛿, $\frac{1}{2}$), with the flavor imbalance introduced as 𝛿. Novel phases are identified at moderate interaction strengths for both densities, and their robustness is investigated in the presence of flavor imbalance. Furthermore, we provide microscopic explanations of the phases found and their stability. Analysis of thermal ensembles of random mean-field solutions indicate that, at temperatures accessible in state-of-the-art cold atom experiments, some spin orders are hard for conventional scattering or local observable measurements to detect, but can be more accessible with quantum gas microscopy in optical lattice experiments. This work also shows that nesting and Mottness, intertwined in the usual SU(2) Hubbard model in stark contrast to generic materials, can be tuned in the SU(3) model and play distinct roles. The resulting phase diagrams not only deepen our understanding of SU⁡(𝑁) Fermi-Hubbard models but also inform future experimental search for new phases.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2026

Nanohybrid of Cu2O-Ti3C2Tx as a Silver-Free MXene Sorbent for Iodine Gas Capture from Nuclear Waste

The capture of volatile radioiodine from nuclear fuel reprocessing off-gas streams remains a critical challenge due to the high volatility, long half-life of 129I, and biological uptake of iodide from the environment. Although silver-based sorbents provide strong iodine chemisorption, their high cost and regulatory classification as mixed radioactive-hazardous waste motivate the development of alternative materials. Here, we report a silver-free Cu2O-Ti3C2Tx MXene hybrid for iodine gas capture at 150 °C. Structural and compositional analyses confirm the formation of Cu2O nanoparticles on Ti3C2Tx nanosheets and their subsequent conversion to thermodynamically stable CuI upon static iodine gas exposure, achieving an iodine mass loading of up to 1115 mg/g. These results demonstrate the potential of Cu2O-Ti3C2Tx MXene as a copper-based alternative to silver sorbents for elevated-temperature iodine gas capture.

iodine gas capture↗
DOE OSTI2026

Flexible Operation of Natural Gas Power Plants in Texas: Startup and Shutdown Durations and Nitrogen Dioxide Emissions

This dataset provides insights into historical flexible operation of natural gas power plants in Texas, with a focus on startup and shutdown events. The dataset includes tables summarizing startup and shutdown durations as well as nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission factors during these events, and compares these emission factors with those observed during all other operating phases (referred to here as “steady-state operation”). The dataset is derived using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)’s Clean Air Markets Program Data (CAMPD). Historical hourly data from 2015–2024, including electricity generation, heat input, and NOx emission factors, are used for natural gas combined cycle units, combustion turbine units, and steam turbine units in Texas. This work was authored by the National Laboratory of the Rockies, operated by the Alliance for Energy Innovation, LLC, for the U.S Department of Energy (DOE) under contract no. DE-AC36-08GO28308. Funding was provided by the U.S. Department of Energy as part of its Grid Modernization Laboratory Consortium, a strategic partnership between DOE and the national laboratories to bring together leading experts, technologies, and resources to collaborate on the goal of modernizing the nation’s grid. The views expressed in the dataset do not necessarily represent the views of the DOE or the U.S. Government.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Plastic additives in the ocean: Use of a comprehensive dataset for meta-analysis and method development

In excess of 13,000 chemicals are added to plastics (‘additives’) to improve performance, durability, and production of plastic products. They are categorized into numerous chemical classes including flame retardants, light stabilizers, antioxidants, and plasticizers. While research on plastic additives in the marine environment has increased over the past decade, there is a lack of methodological standardization. To direct future measurement of plastic additives, we compiled a first-of-its-kind dataset of literature assessing plastic additives in marine environments, delineated by sample type (plastic debris, seawater, sediment, biota). Using this dataset, we performed a meta-analysis to summarize the state of the science. Currently, our dataset includes 217 publications published between 1978 and May 2023. The majority of publications analyzed plastic additives in biota collected from Europe and Asia. Analyses concentrated on plasticizers, brominated flame retardants, and bisphenols. Common sample preparation techniques included Solvent - Agitation extraction for plastic, sediment, and biota samples, and Solid Phase Extraction for seawater samples with dichloromethane and solvent mixtures including dichloromethane as the organic extraction solvent. Finally, most analyses were performed utilizing gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. There are a variety of data gaps illuminated by this meta-analysis, most notably the small number of compounds that have been targeted for detection compared to the large number of additives used in plastic production. The provided dataset facilitates future investigation of trends in plastic additive concentration data in the marine environment (allowing for comparison to toxicity thresholds) and acts as a starting point for optimizing and harmonizing plastic additive analytical methods.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Inhibition of asphaltene aggregation using deep eutectic solvents: COSMO-RS calculations and experimental validation

Asphaltene precipitation/deposition adversely affects various oil and gas processes, such as oil recovery, transportation, and petroleum processing. The resulting increase in viscosity of crude oil decreases distillate yields creating unstable phase separation. Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have recently gained interest as inhibitors of asphaltene aggregation. The goal of the present study is to derive the mechanism of inhibition of petroleum asphaltene aggregation by a novel screening of DESs. An archipelago-based chemical structure of asphaltene was adopted for performing quantum chemical calculations. The structure was used in the conductor-like screening model for real solvents (COSMO-RS) model to screen potential DESs for asphaltene precipitation. It was found that DESs containing thymol were the most promising of the 153 DES combinations screened. The COSMO-RS predictions were validated experimentally using solubility data of asphaltene in DESs. Among the studied DESs, thymol-diphenyl ether provided the highest solubility for asphaltene, which was further validated using the experimental and the COSMO-RS predicted data. In addition, to characterize the structural interactions between asphaltene and DESs, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements were performed. It was found that strong interaction between asphaltene and the DESs is responsible for the higher asphaltene dispersion. Finally, the present approach opens pathways to rationally design and understand the impact of structural variation of DESs based on their interactions with asphaltene.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗