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Effects of substrate bias and tilt on magnetron sputtered boron carbide films
Maintaining high density and good mechanical properties at oblique angles for magnetron sputtered amorphous boron carbide films remains a challenge. In this study, we investigate the effect of the substrate bias on density, residual stress, mechanical properties, and morphology of boron carbide films deposited via direct current magnetron sputtering with a full-face erosion magnetron source in a mixed Ar-Ne plasma. Results show that films deposited at oblique substrate tilt angles on substrates biased at -50 V possess significantly lower oxygen content, superior mechanical properties, and higher density compared to their electrically grounded counterparts. In conclusion, these enhancements observed at oblique angles, while promising, come at the cost of larger residual compressive stress and higher Ne incorporation in films.
Trends in best-in-class energy-efficient technologies for room air conditioners
Improving the efficiency of room air conditioners (RACs) could provide significant energy and associated emissions savings, particularly in emerging economies with hot climates where the cooling demand is expected to increase dramatically. To help accelerate efficiency improvements, this study identifies “best-in-class” high-efficiency RAC components and products. The findings show that manufacturers tend to minimize manufacturing costs by using RAC designs that are readily available or standardized to their production, and they share components across various models. High-efficiency RAC models use advanced compressor technologies optimized at a low frequency, large heat exchangers with thermodynamically effective materials and designs, highly efficient direct current fan motors, advanced metering devices, and smart sensors for temperature and humidity control. Recently RAC manufacturers have been improving seasonal efficiency – better reflecting part-load operation – especially via variable-speed (inverter) drives for compressor motors. Recent highest-efficiency RAC models use low global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants, having transitioned from conventional high-GWP refrigerants, in regions where RACs that use these low-GWP refrigerants are commercially available. Recently demonstrated innovative technologies show trends toward smart hybrid designs, evaporative cooling, and solid-state materials beyond the conventional vapor-compression technology. This information could help policymakers improve their RAC market-transformation programs to align with the most-efficient global technology.
Consumer behavioral adaption in EV fast charging through pricing
Despite the recent development surrounding fast electric vehicle charging and ever growing interest in research, little is known as to how people in reality use Direct Current Fast Charger (DCFC) or how different pricing may affect their recharging behavior. Understanding the consumer behavior in DCFC usage is critical in successful deployment of DCFC. This paper analyzes real-world field data to examine DCFC usage in the U.S. In particular, it examines the effect of a flat-rate fee on the changes in the rate of charge. Furthermore, the result from regression analysis shows evidence that a flat-rate fee has a negative effect on efficient DCFC stations usage.
Wide-Area Measurement-Based Modal Decoupling for Power System Oscillation Damping
Inter-area oscillation modes usually fall within the same frequency range of 0.1 to 1.0 Hz; thus, power oscillation damping (POD) control methods should avoid unnecessary excitation of weakly damped modes. This paper presents a decoupled control strategy to damp inter-area oscillations in the power grid. Pure oscillation mode signals are extracted from wide-area measurements and used as feedback input for POD actuators such as power system stabilizers or high-voltage direct current transmission. The decoupled control strategy is able to increase the damping of the concerned oscillation modes without deteriorating others. This proposed strategy could be implemented independently, or serve as a complement and work along with conventional POD controllers to damp concerned inter-area modes. The proposed method has been tested on a modied MinniWECC system. Extensive results indicate that inter-area oscillations can be successfully and precisely damped using the proposed decoupled strategy.
Ultra-high efficiency hydrogen production using a large-scale solid oxide electrolysis cell system
Efficient and cost-effective production of clean hydrogen is key to decarbonizing the production of hard-to-abate industries, such as chemicals, fuels, steel, cement and many other commodities that form the basis of modern societies. High-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) has recently become commercially available and offers opportunities for producing hydrogen at higher efficiency and lower cost than competing low temperature technologies. In this work, we report world record setting hydrogen production efficiency from large-scale prototype HTSE systems based on solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) technology. Independent tests performed at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) employed a Bloom Energy 100 kW SOEC system to achieve a hydrogen production direct current specific electric energy consumption as low as 36.7 kWh per kilogram of hydrogen. Remarkably, similar high efficiencies in the range of 36–39 kW/kg-H2 were obtained over a wide range of hydrogen production rates and even during dynamic ramping as the hydrogen production and electric power consumption of the system were varied between 20 % and 100 % of nominal conditions. Furthermore, these test results validate previous projections that commercial SOEC systems can produce clean hydrogen at efficiencies approaching 100 % for less than 2 U S. dollars per kilogram when located near sources of inexpensive, low-grade heat and clean electricity.
Enhancing low-temperature sintering in the MgO-LiF system: Mechanistic insights
In the present article, we provide compelling evidence that minor (1 wt%) additions of micron and nanometre-sized LiF particles in MgO decompose leading to free Li diffusing into MgO surfaces enhancing vacancy production during direct current sintering. The addition of nanometre-sized LiF particles leads to a > 500 °C reduction in the sintering temperature and over 99 % theoretical density of final consolidated compacts. Correlating differential scanning calorimetry with in-situ x-ray diffraction, together with Schottky calculations, post sintering electron microscopy and laser induced breakdown spectroscopy, we uncover critical insights into this impressive reduction in sintering temperature. Our quantitative analysis reveals that MgO and LiF interact at low temperatures with the diffusion of Li into the surface of MgO particles due to the intrinsic structural disorder of the LiF and MgO crystallites. Nanometre-sized LiF particles were found to react the most at low temperatures due to their increased structural disorder. Our multimodal characterization points to a Li-promoted densification and sintering mechanism. This impressive reduction in sintering temperature can be harnessed to promote low-temperature fabrication of MgO-based composites for technological applications.
Investigation of spin orbit torque driven dynamics in ferromagnetic heterostructures
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Tailoring microstructure in sintered Cu-Cr-Nb-Zr alloys for fusion components
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Estimate long-term impact on battery degradation by considering electric vehicle real-world end-use factors
Many estimates of battery capacity degradation are based on accelerated lab tests that involve charge-discharge cycles or rely on data or electrochemical modeling. These methods are reasonable for technology benchmarking but rarely consider real-world end-use factors. To address this issue, this study develops the Battery Run-down under Electric Vehicle Operation (BREVO) model. It links the driver's travel pattern to physics-based battery degradation and powertrain energy consumption models. The model simulates the impacts of charging behavior, charging rate, driving patterns, and multiple energy management modules on battery capacity degradation. It finds that, over a 10-year timespan, firstly, for a random driver situated in the New England area, daily direct-current fast charging (60 kW) could lead to up to 22% less battery capacity when compared to daily Level-1 charging (1.8 kW). Second, the battery thermal management system can delay battery degradation by approximately 0.5% in the New England area. Third, warmer ambient temperatures enhance BEV battery usage. The model indicates that the battery capacity in the Los Angeles area is 6% higher than that in the New England area. The BREVO model provides crucial information for consumers and BEV manufacturers on range anxiety, BEV battery design, and decision support of battery warranty.
Lithium loss, resistance growth, electrode expansion, gas evolution, and Li plating: Analyzing performance and failure of commercial large-format NMC-Gr lithium-ion pouch cells
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Electro-analytical method for the quantities evaluation of the silicon solar cell by DC and AC characterization technique
Highlights: • Exact electro-analytical method for evaluation of silicon solar cells. • DC and AC characterization technique to determine the performance limiting parameters of solar cells. • EIS is used to get an insight into the solar cells and parameter optimization. - Abstract: Mono and Poly- crystalline silicon (Si) based solar cell has proven to be the most efficient and matured technology till date. The present work reports an exact electro-analytical method for the evaluation of different performance parameters in the current voltage response of the Si solar cell by DC and AC characterization technique. The extracted solar cell parameters from DC and AC techniques were compared with each other under the proper limiting conditions of low and high forward bias. The DC and AC characterization are used to determine the bias dependence of ideality factor and series resistance, respectively. The current-voltage (J-V) characteristics is combined with the impedance spectroscopy (IS) measurements to reveal the various interfacial, resistive and recombination analysis of the silicon solar cell. Herein the experimentally obtained J-V characteristics under the illumination condition have been reconstructed by individually extracted parameters from DC and AC measurements. Moreover, the present mechanistic provides a simple tool for analysing the commercial Si solar cell with a wide applicability for other solar cells.
Resolving three-dimensional nanoscale heterogeneities in lithium metal batteries with cryoelectron tomography
Current direct observation of sensitive battery materials and interfaces primarily relies on two-dimensional (2D) imaging, leaving out their three-dimensional (3D) relationship. Here, in this study, we used cryoelectron tomography (cryo-ET) to visualize the lithium metal anode in 3D at nanometer resolution and cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) to reveal atomic details in local regions. We imaged both freshly prepared and calendar-aged Li metal anodes to reveal the development of LiH in Li dendrites and the Li-LiH interface, as well as the development of the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI). Using a convolutional neural network-based technique, the 3D arrangement of Li metal, along with nanoscale LiH and Cu heterogeneities in dendrites, was visualized and annotated. In longer-term calendar aging, we observed more substantial LiH growth accompanied by extended SEI growth. Our results show that the growth of LiH and the extended SEI during battery calendar aging are temporally and spatially separate processes.
Effects of elevated temperature exposure on the residual stress state and microstructure of PVD Cr coatings on SiC investigated via in situ X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy
Pure Cr coatings are being considered as corrosion-resistant layers for SiC-SiC f composite fuel cladding in light water reactors. The residual stress state and interdiffusion behavior of Cr coatings deposited on SiC substrates using bipolar high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (B-HiPIMS) and direct current impulse magnetron sputtering (DCMS) were studied using in situ X-ray diffraction experiments at 300 °C, 700 °C, and 1200 °C. After elevated temperature exposure, evolution of the coating microstructure and coating/substrate interdiffusion was characterized by transmission electron microscopy. The compressive residual stress of the dense B-HiPIMS coating at room temperature was gradually relieved at 300 °C, while the stress transitioned to a tensile state at 700 °C. Grain growth of the Cr coating and a Cr–SiC interdiffusion layer consisting of newly formed Cr–C and Cr–Si phases were observed in the B-HiPIMS coating after exposure at 700 °C. The phases in the interdiffusion layer were identified to be Cr 7 C 3 , Cr 3 Si, and Cr 5 Si 3 C x experimentally and by thermodynamic predictions. For the DCMS coating, however, changes in residual stress and microstructure at the elevated temperatures were limited by the inherent porosity and inhomogeneous structure of the as-deposited coating. At 1200 °C, both coating types interacted rapidly with the underlying SiC substrate in the early stages of the experiment. The results from this study suggest that the characteristics of the Cr coatings do not significantly change at the reactor operating temperature of 300 °C, while changes in microstructure and stress state are expected in off-normal conditions of 700 °C and 1200 °C. Finally the results from this study suggest the B-HiPIMS coating is best-suited as a protective coating for SiC fuel cladding.
Hydrogen embrittlement and mechanical response of 304L steel with ZrC additions
While stainless steels are widely used for hydrogen storage infrastructure, they can still be vulnerable to hydrogen embrittlement justifying the need to further improve their hydrogen resiliency. Here, we investigate the potential for transition metal carbide additions to improve the hydrogen compatibility of austenitic stainless steels. ZrC nanoparticles were dispersed in contents of 0.01–10 wt% in 304 L stainless steel powder, mixed via high energy ball milling, and subsequently consolidated using direct current sintering. To assess hydrogen compatibility, the tensile properties of similarly processed 304 L without ZrC nanoparticles were compared to 304 L with the ZrC additions; both materials were evaluated prior to and after hydrogen exposure (non-charged and H-precharged, respectively). Depending upon the ZrC phase fraction, the yield strengths varied from ∼325 to 560 MPa in the non-charged condition and from ∼375 to 550 MPa in the H-precharged condition. Strain at failure varied from ∼5 to 90 % and from ∼5 to 35 % in the non-charged and hydrogen-precharged conditions, respectively. Results from stress-strain profiles demonstrate limited efficacy of ZrC as a method to mitigate hydrogen embrittlement entirely but does demonstrate the potency of ZrC inclusions as strengthening addition to 304 L alloys without a loss of ductility.
Distributed optimization and control for autonomous distributed energy resource power dispatch and frequency regulation considering communication failures
Distributed energy resources (DERs) can significantly enhance grid flexibility by supplying power and secondary frequency regulation (SFR) services. Yet, their large number and dispersed nature limit the effectiveness of traditional centralized power dispatch and frequency control schemes, and expose the system to single-point communication failures. This paper presents a unified distributed optimization and control framework for DER power dispatch and SFR provision. A transmission-loss-aware distributed direct current optimal power flow is first formulated to optimize DER power dispatch and reserve scheduling. On top of this, a fully distributed control scheme for DER autonomous SFR provision is developed to allocate automatic generation control signals cost-effectively while ensuring robustness to communication link disruptions. The framework is validated on IEEE 14-bus and 39-bus transmission systems with large-scale distribution feeders using transmission-distribution dynamic co-simulation, demonstrating reliable and autonomous DER power dispatch and SFR provision under diverse operating conditions and communication contingencies.
Comparison of breakdown-voltage of contemporary and veteran photovoltaic backsheets
The ability of designated electrically insulating materials in a module, including the backsheet, to act as insulators is a key safety requirement for photovoltaic technology. The recently developed test standards IEC TS 62788-2 (including a method for direct-current breakdown-voltage) and IEC TS 62788-7-2 (for ultraviolet [UV] weathering) are examined for the first time together in this study. Thirty-six contemporary backsheets were compared using the breakdown-voltage test, before and after UV weathering, according to the recent A3 test condition. Twenty-eight backsheets, extracted from a variety of veteran photovoltaic modules, were also examined using the breakdown test. Additional characterizations were performed to interpret the breakdown-voltage results, including: surface and cross-sectional optical microscopy failure analysis; cross-sectional scanning electron (SEM) microscopy with EDS energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) failure analysis; Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to identify the base resin and its chemical integrity; and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to identify phase transitions that might adversely affect degradation during weathering. The electrical insulation for the backsheets is discussed relative to: the industry safety requirement; features observed to facilitate the degradation of insulation; the validity of the artificial UV weathering test; the validity of the sheet geometry used for specimens in this study; and the validity of subsequent mechanical testing.
Durability enhancement of all-solid-state electrochromic devices by adjusting the charge density ratio between electrochromic and counter electrode layers
Here, owing to an increase in global warming, smart-window devices based on charge-balanced electrochromic devices (ECDs), which exhibit high potential to increase the thermal efficiency of buildings, have gained prominence. However, studies on the fabrication and cycling stability of charge-balanced ECDs are scarce. In this study, WO 3 and NiO x films were deposited on indium-tin-oxide (ITO)-coated glass substrates by reactive direct-current magnetron sputtering, and the deposition time was varied to control the thickness and charge density of the thin films. Subsequently, the NiO x /ITO/glass and WO 3 /ITO/glass substrates were laminated with a Li-based polymeric electrolyte to fabricate all-solid-state ECDs comprising electrochromic (EC) and counter-electrode (CE) layers in charge-density ratios of 12.6, 6.4, 2.3, and 1.1. Changes in the electrochromic properties, device-layer microstructure, crystal structure, and elemental composition of the as-constructed ECDs before and after degradation were investigated to understand the influence of the charge-density ratio of the EC and CE layers on the long-term durability of ECDs. Increasing the charge-density ratio decreased the cycling stability of the device owing to changes in the microstructure and crystal structure of the NiO x layer in the microstructural deep-trap sites. Among all the ECDs, those comprising EC and CE layers with similar charge densities showed the most stable optical modulation and highest long-term durability. Finally, based on the aforementioned results, a degradation mechanism for charge-imbalanced all-solid-state ECDs was proposed. This study is expected to open new frontiers in designing optimal-performance electrochemical devices with a wide variety of potential applications.