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DOE OSTI2026

Urban wash-off of tire wear particles

Tire wear particles (TWPs) are an important class of microplastics due to their toxicity and abundance. Because most TWPs are generated on impervious road surfaces, urban wash-off is the critical first phase of waterborne transport from their zone of production to stormwater drainage. However, little is known about the driving factors behind their mobilization. In this study, we use a rainfall simulator to investigate how surface roughness, rainfall intensity, and surface slope affect wash-off behaviors of TWPs. We also analyze how the size and shape of mobilized TWPs change over the course of simulated storm events. We found that low surface roughness, high rainfall intensity (most significant factor), and low slope result in the most rapid conveyance of TWP load. On average, large particles (>1000 µm) travelled faster than small particles (<125 µm). Particle shape explained a very small amount of variance in TWP wash-off velocity but was found to be more important under higher surface roughness conditions. In addition to wash-off velocity, we found similar conditions controlled the percent mobilization of TWPs. Low surface roughness and high rainfall intensity resulting in higher TWP wash-off rates is consistent with mineral sediment wash-off behavior. Conversely, low surface slope and large particle size leading to faster conveyance is directly opposed to mineral sediment wash-off. Our findings suggest drag-dominated flow and that sufficient runoff depth is the most important parameter governing TWP wash-off. These findings are important first steps to understanding wash-off behaviors of TWPs and informing future modeling efforts and mitigation strategies.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗
NASA NTRS2001

Ground-Based Passive Microwave Remote Sensing Observations of Soil Moisture at S and L Band with Insight into Measurement Accuracy

Accurate estimates of spatially heterogeneous algorithm variables and parameters are required in determining the spatial distribution of soil moisture using radiometer data from aircraft and satellites. A ground-based experiment in passive microwave remote sensing of soil moisture was conducted in Huntsville, Alabama from July 1-14, 1996 to study retrieval algorithms and their sensitivity to variable and parameter specification. With high temporal frequency observations at S and L band, we were able to observe large scale moisture changes following irrigation and rainfall events, as well as diurnal behavior of surface moisture among three plots, one bare, one covered with short grass and another covered with alfalfa. The L band emitting depth was determined to be on the order of 0-3 or 0-5 cm below 0.30 cubic centimeter/cubic centimeter with an indication of a shallower emitting depth at higher moisture values. Surface moisture behavior was less apparent on the vegetated plots than it was on the bare plot because there was less moisture gradient and because of difficulty in determining vegetation water content and estimating the vegetation b parameter. Discrepancies between remotely sensed and gravimetric, soil moisture estimates on the vegetated plots point to an incomplete understanding of the requirements needed to correct for the effects of vegetation attenuation. Quantifying the uncertainty in moisture estimates is vital if applications are to utilize remotely-sensed soil moisture data. Computations based only on the real part of the complex dielectric constant and/or an alternative dielectric mixing model contribute a relatively insignificant amount of uncertainty to estimates of soil moisture. Rather, the retrieval algorithm is much more sensitive to soil properties, surface roughness and biomass.

Laymon, Charles A.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Surface photometric properties and albedo changes in the central equatorial region of Mars

Comparison of the Viking Orbiter 2 Approach mosaic taken 11 Mars months later provides qualitative information on the photometric properties of the martian albedo features, and the distribution of dust and sand deposits responsible for the atmosphere near the northern summer solstice. The approach mosaic was taken at L (sub s) 106 degrees (early N. summer), phase angle 106 degrees; and airmasses varying from 4.6 at 30 degrees N to 3.3 near 10 degrees S. The apoapsis mosaic was taken in four sequences between L (sub s) 72 degrees and 76 degrees (late N. spring), near phase angles of 47 degrees, and at airmasses near 2.5. Systematic differences in the photometric decalibrations used to generate these mosaics may induce multiplicative errors of 5-10 percent of the observed albedos in comparisons of the mosaics, but they are probably nearer 3 percent of the albedos. In the study area (30 degrees N to 20 degrees S, 57 degrees E to 75 degrees W), scene-average approach Minnaert albedos were about 10 percent greater than apoapsis albedos and slightly less 'red'. The preferred explanation for the observed approach-apoapsis albedo difference is that both Arabia and Meridiani materials are smoother on millimeter and larger scales than other units in the study area. This is in good agreement with preliminary conclusions of Thorpe and (for dark intracrater Meridiani splotches) Regner et al. This is also consistent with reasonable models of these surfaces. 'Dark Blue' Meridiani surfaces are interpreted as consisting of sand dunes and sand sheets, which would be expected to have macroscopically smooth, nonshadowing surfaces. Viking Lander images of the surfaces at both landing sites show that smooth drift area's brightnesses are close to those of adjacent rough soil areas at low phase angles, but drifts become much brighter than rough soils when looking up-sun at high phase angles. Smooth patches of duricrust at both landing sites, interpreted by Strickland as eolian deposits (regardless of how they became salt enriched and cemented), also show this behavior.

Strickland, Edwin L., III↗
NASA NTRS1994

Comprehensive stellar population models and the disentanglement of age and metallicity effects

The construction of detailed models for intermediate and old stellar populations is described. Input parameters include metallicity (-2 less than (Fe/H) less than 0.5), single-burst age (between 1.5 and 17 Gyr), and initial mass function (IMF) exponent. Quantities output include broadband magnitudes, spectral energy distributions, surface brightness fluctuation magnitudes, and a suite of 21 absorption feature indices. The models are checked against a wide variety of available observations. Examinations of model output yield the following conclusions. (1) If the percentage change delta age/delta Z approximately equals 3/2 for two populations, they will appear almost identical in most indices. A few indices break this degeneracy by being either more abundance sensitive (Fe4668, Fe5015, Fe5709, and Fe5782) or more age sensitive (G4300, H beta, and presumably higher order Balmer lines) than usual. (2) Present uncertainties in stellar evolution are of the same magnitude as the effects of IMF and Y in the indices studied. (3) Changes in abundance ratios (like (Mg/Fe)) are predicted to be readily apparent in the spectra of old stellar populations. (4) The I-band flux of a stellar population is predicted to be nearly independent of metallicity and only modestly sensitive to age. The I band is therefore recommended for standard candle work or studies of M/L in galaxies. Other conclusions stem from this work. (1) Intercomparison of models and observations of two TiO indices seem to indicate variation of the (V/Ti) ratio among galaxies, but it is not clear how this observation ties into the standard picture of chemical enrichment. (2) Current estimates of (Fe/H) for the most metal-rich globulars that are based on integrated indices are probably slightly too high. (3) Colors of population models from different authors exhibit a substantial range. At solar metallicity and 13 Gyr, this range corresponds to an age error of roughly +/- 7 Gyr. Model colors from different authors applied in a differential sense have smaller uncertainties. (4) In the present models the dominant error for colors is probably the transformation from stellar atmospheric parameters to stellar colors. (5) Stellar B - V is difficult to model, and current spreads among different authors can reach 0.2 mag. (6) If known defects in the stellar flux library are corrected, the population model colors of this work in passbands redder than U would be accurate to roughly 0.03 mag in an absolute sense. These corrections are not made in the tables of model output.

Worthey, Guy↗
NASA NTRS1998

Sea Ice on the Southern Ocean

Year-round satellite records of sea ice distribution now extend over more than two decades, providing a valuable tool to investigate related characteristics and circulations in the Southern Ocean. We have studied a variety of features indicative of oceanic and atmospheric interactions with Antarctic sea ice. In the Amundsen & Bellingshausen Seas, sea ice extent was found to have decreased by approximately 20% from 1973 through the early 1990's. This change coincided with and probably contributed to recently warmer surface conditions on the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula, where air temperatures have increased by approximately 0.5 C/decade since the mid-1940's. The sea ice decline included multiyear cycles of several years in length superimposed on high interannual variability. The retreat was strongest in summer, and would have lowered the regional mean ice thickness, with attendant impacts upon vertical heat flux and the formation of snow ice and brine. The cause of the regional warming and loss of sea ice is believed to be linked to large-scale circulation changes in the atmosphere and ocean. At the eastern end of the Weddell Gyre, the Cosmonaut Polyna revealed greater activity since 1986, a recurrence pattern during recent winters and two possible modes of formation. Persistence in polynya location was noted off Cape Ann, where the coastal current can interact more strongly with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. As a result of vorticity conservation, locally enhanced upwelling brings warmer deep water into the mixed layer, causing divergence and melting. In the Ross Sea, ice extent fluctuates over periods of several years, with summer minima and winter maxima roughly in phase. This leads to large interannual cycles of sea ice range, which correlate positively with meridinal winds, regional air temperatures and subsequent shelf water salinities. Deep shelf waters display considerable interannual variability, but have freshened by approximately 0.03/decade since the late 1950's. That could have slowed the thermohaline circulation beneath the Ross Ice Shelf and the properties or volume of local bottom water production.

Jacobs, Stanley S.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Airborne Spectral Measurements of Ocean Anisotropy during CLAMS

The Cloud Absorption Radiometer (CAR) aboard the University of Washington Convair CV-580 research aircraft obtained bidirectional reflectance-distribution function (BRDF) of Atlantic Ocean and Dismal Swamp between July 10 and August 2, 2001. The BRDF measurements (15 in total, 8 uncontaminated by clouds) obtained under a variety of sun angles and wind conditions, will be used to characterize ocean anisotropy in support of Chesapeake Lighthouse and Aircraft Measurements for Satellites (CLAMS) science objectives principally to validate products from NASA's EOS satellites, and to parameterize and validate BRDF models of the ocean. In this paper we present results of BRDF of the Ocean under different sun angles and wind conditions. The CAR is capable of measuring scattered light in fourteen spectral bands. The scan mirror, rotating at 100 rpm, directs the light into a Dall-Kirkham telescope where the beam is split into nine paths. Eight light beams pass through beam splitters, dichroics, and lenses to individual detectors (0.34-1.27 micron), and finally are registered by eight data channels. They are sampled simultaneously and continuously. The ninth beam passes through a spinning filter wheel to an InSb detector cooled by a Stirling cycle cooler. Signals registered by the ninth data channel are selected from among six spectral channels (1.55-2.30 micron). The filter wheel can either cycle through all six spectral bands at a prescribed interval (usually changing filter every fifth scan line), or lock onto any one of the six spectral bands and sample it continuously. To measure the BRF of the surface-atmosphere system, the University of Washington CV-580 had to fly in a circle about 3 km in diameter above the surface for roughly two minutes. Replicated observations (multiple circular orbits) were acquired over selected surfaces so that average BRF smooth out small-scale surface and atmospheric inhomogeneities. At an altitude of 600 m above the targeted surface area and with a 1 degree IFOV, the pixel resolution is about 10 m at nadir and about 270 m at an 80 deg. viewing angle from the CAR.

Gatebe, C. K.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

500+ Million Years of Volcanism in Australe

The roughly circular collection of mare deposits in the "Mare Australe" region (38.9°S, 93°E) is ~900 km in diameter. The maria erupted into post-basin impact craters but are generally disconnected from each other. The distribution of maria could reflect what might have been the early stages of other basin filling mare eruptions, but which are preserved in Australe and some farside locations [1-3]. Topographic data fail to indicate a 900-km basin, but gravity and topographic data suggest a 600-km basin in the northern part of Australe [6]. The relationship between the basin and the wider-spread mare deposits is unclear, particularly outside the basin. We utilized images, gravity, topography, and composition to investigate the timing of volcanism in "Mare Australe" to interpret the evolution of magmatism in Australe and how it might relate to other mare sources. Humboldt crater (~3.6 Ga) makes an excellent stratigraphic marker that can be traced across much of the deposits and serves as a stratigraphic calibration for absolute model ages (AMAs) derived from crater size-frequency distributions (CSFDs). We found a range of AMAs from ~3.3 to 3.8 Ga in north Australe, similar to previous studies [4], and there is also evidence for multiple deposits of older cryptomaria. The age range, however, is narrower than for maria in other basins (e.g., Imbrium and South Pole-Aitken [4-5]), suggesting different magmatism in Australe. Most of the mare deposits are >3.5 Ga; younger deposits are co-located in the north basin. The basin may have provided additional pathways for rising magma to the surface over time. We also found evidence of a several interconnected deposits within the north basin. Other, smaller deposits, however, clearly show distinct age differences between units within a single topographic depression (e.g., Lyot crater) and likely represent discrete eruptions. Additionally, there are no floor fractured craters other than Humboldt [6], suggesting that magma generally did not stall out near the surface, also consistent with gravity and (lack of) magnetic anomalies (in contrast to Marius Hills and South Pole-Aitken basin [7-8]).

Julie Dawn Stopar↗
NASA NTRS2004

Picturing Data With Uncertainty

NASA is in the business of creating maps for scientific purposes to represent important biophysical or geophysical quantities over space and time. For example, maps of surface temperature over the globe tell scientists where and when the Earth is heating up; regional maps of the greenness of vegetation tell scientists where and when plants are photosynthesizing. There is always uncertainty associated with each value in any such map due to various factors. When uncertainty is fully modeled, instead of a single value at each map location, there is a distribution expressing a set of possible outcomes at each location. We consider such distribution data as multi-valued data since it consists of a collection of values about a single variable. Thus, a multi-valued data represents both the map and its uncertainty. We have been working on ways to visualize spatial multi-valued data sets effectively for fields with regularly spaced units or grid cells such as those in NASA's Earth science applications. A new way to display distributions at multiple grid locations is to project the distributions from an individual row, column or other user-selectable straight transect from the 2D domain. First at each grid cell in a given slice (row, column or transect), we compute a smooth density estimate from the underlying data. Such a density estimate for the probability density function (PDF) is generally more useful than a histogram, which is a classic density estimate. Then, the collection of PDFs along a given slice are presented vertically above the slice and form a wall. To minimize occlusion of intersecting slices, the corresponding walls are positioned at the far edges of the boundary. The PDF wall depicts the shapes of the distributions very dearly since peaks represent the modes (or bumps) in the PDFs. We've defined roughness as the number of peaks in the distribution. Roughness is another useful summary information for multimodal distributions. The uncertainty of the multi-valued data can also be interpreted by the number of peaks and the widths of the peaks as shown by the PDF walls.

Kao, David↗
NASA NTRS1999

Space Weathering in the Fine Size Fractions of Lunar Soils: Soil Maturity Effects

The effects of space weathering on the optical properties of lunar materials have been well documented. These effects include a reddened continuum slope, lowered albedo, and attenuated absorption features in reflectance spectra of lunar soils as compared to finely comminuted rocks from the same Apollo sites. However, the regolith processes that cause these effects are not well known, nor is the petrographic setting of the products of these processes fully understood. A Lunar Soil Characterization Consortium has been formed with the purpose of systematically integrating chemical and mineralogical data with the optical properties of lunar soils. Understanding space-weathering effects is critical in order to fully integrate the lunar sample collection with remotely-sensed data from recent robotic missions (e.g., Lunar Prospector, Clementine, and Galileo) We have shown that depositional processes (condensation of impact-derived vapors, sputter deposits, accreted impact material, e.g., splash glass, spherules, etc.) are a major factor in the modification of the optical surfaces of lunar regolith materials. In mature soils, it is the size and distribution of the nanophase metal in the soil grains that has the major effect on optical properties. In this report, we compare and contrast the space-weathering effects in an immature and a mature soil with similar elemental compositions. For this study, we analyzed <10 micron sieve fractions of two Apollo 17 soils, 79221 (mature, Is/FeO = 81) and 71061 (immature, Is/FeO = 14). Details of the sieving procedures and allocation scheme are given else where. The results of other detailed chemical, mineralogical, and spectroscopic analyses of these soil samples are reported elsewhere. A representative sample of each soil was embedded in low-viscosity epoxy, and thin sections (about 70nm thick) were obtained through ultra microtomy. The thin sections used for these analyses typically contained cross sections of up to 500 individual grains. The thin sections were studied using a JEOL 2010 transmission electron microscope (TEM) equipped with a thin window energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometer. An individual thin section was selected from each soil, and for each grain in the section we determined (1) the elemental composition by EDX; (2) whether the grain was crystalline or glassy using electron diffraction and darkfield imaging; (3) the presence or absence of rims and accreted material; and (4) the distribution of nanophase Fe where present. Most of the categories are self-evident; however, we divide the agglutinate derived material into agglutinitic glass (glass with approximately the same composition as the bulk soil that contains nanophase Fe with or without vesicles) and agglutinate fragments, which are composed of crystalline grains and agglutinitic glass. Lithic fragments are defined as polymineralic grains with no glass. Pyroxene grains have been divided into high- and low-Ca groups. As expected, there are a number of differences in the petrography of the <10-microns fractions of 79221 and 71061 given the great difference in their respective maturities, but we focus here on two major distinctions: agglutinate content and the number of grains with micropatina. Slightly over 50% of the particles in 79221 consist of agglutinitic glass and agglutinate fragments, while the remainder are predominantly crystalline mineral grains. The agglutinic glass particles contain abundant nanophase Fe and vesicles. Angular particles are rare, with most showing smooth, rounded exteriors, Of the mineral grains analyzed thus far, over 90% of the grains have amorphous rims that contain nanophase Fe (these rims are believed to have formed by vapor deposition and irradiation effects). The nanophase Fe in these rims probably accounts for a significant fraction of the increase in Is/FeO measured in these size fractions. In addition to the rims, the majority of particles also show abundant accreted material in the form of glass splashes and spherules that also contain nanophase Fe. In stark contrast, the surfaces of the mineral grains in the 71061 sample are relatively prisitine, as only about 14% of the mineral grains in the sample exhibited amorphous rims. Furthermore, the mineral particles are more angular and show greater surface roughness than in the mature sample. Accreted material on particle surfaces is rare. Agglutinitic material is a major component of the 71061 sample; however, nanophase Fe and vesicles are not as well developed as in the 79221 sample. It is now recognized that nanophase Fe is probably the main agent in modifying the optical properties of lunar soil grains. The most important result of this study is the observation that in the fine size fractions of mature soils, nearly every grain has nanophase Fe within 100 run of the particle surface. (Additional Information contained in original)

Keller, L. P.↗
NASA NTRS2011

Landsat Data Continuity Mission

The Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM) is currently under development and is on schedule to launch the 8th satellite in the Landsat series in December of 2012. LDCM is a joint project between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). NASA is responsible for developing and launching the flight hardware and on-orbit commissioning and USGS is responsible for developing the ground system and operating the system onorbit after commissioning. Key components of the flight hardware are the Operational Land Imager (OLI), nearing completion by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp in Boulder, CO, the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS), being built by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center and the spacecraft, undergoing integration at Orbital Sciences Corp in Gilbert, Arizona. The launch vehicle will be an Atlas-5 with launch services provided by NASA's Kennedy Space Center. Key ground systems elements are the Mission Operations Element, being developed by the Hammers Corporation, and the Collection Activity Planning Element, Ground Network Element, and Data Processing and Archive System, being developed internally by the USGS Earth Resources Observations and Science (EROS) Center. The primary measurement goal of LDCM is to continue the global coverage of moderate spatial resolution imagery providing continuity with the existing Landsat record. The science goal for this imagery is to monitor land use and land cover, particularly as it relates to global climate change. Together the OLI and TIRS instruments on LDCM replace the ETM+ instrument on Landsat-7 with significant enhancements. The OLI is a pushbroom design instrument where the scanning mechanism of the ETM+ is effectively replaced by a long line of detectors. The OLI has 9 spectral bands with similar spatial resolution to ETM+: 7 of them similar to the reflective spectral bands on ETM+ and two new bands. The two new bands cover (1) the shorter wavelength blue part of the spectrum to help with coastal studies and aerosol analyses/atmospheric correction and (2) an atmospheric water absorption band, where the Earth surface is generally not visible, but Cirrus clouds are, to aid in cloud detection and screening. The radiometry of OLI benefits from improved SNR, dynamic range and quantization. OLI is undergoing system testing with a delivery scheduled for Spring 2011. The TIRS is also a pushbroom design and used QWIPS detectors that require cooling to 43K using a cryocooler. It.has two spectral bands, effectively splitting the ETM+ band 6 in half, that can be used as a split window to aid in atmospheric correction. It has nominally 100 m spatial resolution as opposed to the 60 m of Landsat-7 ETM+: TIRS has commenced integration and test, with a delivery to the spacecraft vendor scheduled for Winter 2011-2012. The Orbital spacecraft currently being integrated for LDCM will have improved capabilities for pointing over previous missions. These capabilities will allow the OLI and TIRS instruments to point off-nadir the equivalent of one WRS-2 path to increase the chances of coverage for high priority targets, particularly in the event of natural disasters. Also, the pointing capability will allow the calibration of the OLI using the sun (roughly weekly), the moon (monthly), stars (during commissioning) and the Earth (at 90 deg from normal orientation, a.k.a., side slither) quarterly. The solar calibration will be used for OLI absolute and relative calibration, the moon for trending the stability of the OLI response, the stars will be used for Line of Sight determination and the side slither will be an alternate OLI and relative gain determination methodology. The spacecraft is scheduled to begin integration with the OLI instrument in Summer 2011. The LDCM data processing and archive system (DPAS), located at USGS EROS, generates the products for distribution to users. Like Landsat-7 this includes an image assessment system for characrizing instrument performance and updating calibration parameters. Products will be generated that include the spectral bands from both instruments, terrain corrected and registered to the geoid. Also, like Landsat-7, data products will be distributed at no charge to the user. The current status and plans of the space and ground segments of the LDCM project will be presented along with performance predictions as available. More detailed information on the two instruments is intended to be presented in separate papers.

Markham, Brian↗
NASA NTRS2020

Local and Remote Mean and Extreme Temperature Response to Regional Aerosol Emissions Reductions

The climatic implications of regional aerosol and precursor emissions reductions implemented to protect human health are poorly understood. We investigate the mean and extreme temperature response to regional changes in aerosol emissions using three coupled chemistry–climate models: NOAA GFDL CM3, NCAR CESM1, and NASA GISS-E2. Our approach contrasts a long present-day control simulation from each model (up to 400 years with perpetual year 2000 or 2005 emissions) with 14 individual aerosol emissions perturbation simulations (160–240 years each). We perturb emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and/or carbonaceous aerosol within six world regions and assess the statistical significance of mean and extreme temperature responses relative to internal variability determined by the control simulation and across the models. In all models, the global mean surface temperature response (perturbation minus control) to SO2 and/or carbonaceous aerosol is mostly positive (warming) and statistically significant and ranges from +0.17 K (Europe SO2) to -0.06 K (US BC). The warming response to SO2 reductions is strongest in the US and Europe perturbation simulations, both globally and regionally, with Arctic warming up to 1 K due to a removal of European anthropogenic SO2 emissions alone; however, even emissions from regions remote to the Arctic, such as SO2 from India, significantly warm the Arctic by up to 0.5 K. Arctic warming is the most robust response across each model and several aerosol emissions perturbations. The temperature response in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes is most sensitive to emissions perturbations within that region. In the tropics, however, the temperature response to emissions perturbations is roughly the same in magnitude as emissions perturbations either within or outside of the tropics. We find that climate sensitivity to regional aerosol perturbations ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 K (W m(exp -2))(exp -1) depending on the region and aerosol composition and is larger than the climate sensitivity to a doubling of CO2 in two of three models. We update previous estimates of regional temperature potential (RTP), a metric for estimating the regional temperature responses to a regional emissions perturbation that can facilitate assessment of climate impacts with integrated assessment models without requiring computationally demanding coupled climate model simulations. These calculations indicate a robust regional response to aerosol forcing within the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes, regardless of where the aerosol forcing is located longitudinally. We show that regional aerosol perturbations can significantly increase extreme temperatures on the regional scale. Except in the Arctic in the summer, extreme temperature responses largely mirror mean temperature responses to regional aerosol perturbations through a shift of the temperature distributions and are mostly dominated by local rather than remote aerosol forcing.

Westervelt, Daniel M.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Solar vs. Fission Surface Power for Mars

A multi-discipline team of experts from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) developed Mars surface power system point design solutions for two conceptual missions. The primary goal of this study was to compare the relative merits of solar- versus fission-powered versions of each surface mission. First, the team compared three different solar power options against a fission power system concept for a sub-scale, uncrewed demonstration mission. The 4.5 meter (m) diameter pathfinder lander's primary mission would be to demonstrate Mars entry, descent, and landing techniques. Once on the Martian surface, the lander's In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) payload would demonstrate liquid oxygen propellant production using atmospheric resources. For the purpose of this exercise, location was assumed to be at the Martian equator. The three solar concepts considered included a system that only operated during daylight hours (at roughly half the daily propellant production rate of a round-the-clock fission design), a battery-augmented system that operated through the night (matching the fission concept's propellant production rate), and a system that operated only during daylight, but at a higher rate (again, matching the fission concept's propellant production rate). Including 30% mass growth allowance, total payload masses for the three solar concepts ranged from 1,116 to 2,396 kg, versus the 2,686 kg fission power scheme. However, solar power masses are expected to approach or exceed the fission payload mass at landing sites further from the equator, making landing site selection a key driver in the final power system decision. The team also noted that detailed reliability analysis should be performed on daytime-only solar power schemes to assess potential issues with frequent ISRU system on/off cycling. Next, the team developed a solar-powered point design solution for a conceptual four-crew, 500-day surface mission consisting of up to four landers per crewed expedition mission. Unlike the demonstration mission, a lengthy power outage due to the global dust storms that are known to occur on Mars would pose a safety hazard to a crewed mission. A similar fission versus solar power trade study performed by NASA in 2007 concluded that fission power was more reliable-with a much lower mass penalty-than solar power for this application. However, recent advances in solar cell and energy storage technologies and changes in operational assumptions prompted NASA to revisit the analysis. For the purpose of this exercise a particular landing site at Jezero Crater, located at 18o north latitude, was assumed. A fission power system consisting of four each 10 kW Kilopower fission reactors was compared to a distributed network of Orion-derived Ultraflex solar arrays and Lithium ion batteries mounted on every lander. The team found that a solar power system mass of about 9,800 kg would provide the 22 kilowatts (kW) keep-alive power needed to survive a dust storm lasting up to 120-days at average optical depth of 5, and 35 kW peak power for normal operations under clear skies. Although this is less than half the mass estimated during the 2007 work (which assumed latitudes up to 30o) it is still more than the 7,000 kg mass of the fission system which provides full power regardless of dust storm conditions.

Rucker, Michelle A.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Key Differences in Operating a Rover on the Moon vs. Mars

The command and control model for spacecraft operations, as well as the distribution of tasks between ground assets and in space assets, whether with a crew or solely robotic, is fundamentally constrained by the round trip light time between the space asset and the control facility (presumably on Earth, though not required). For an asset on Mars, the round trip light time varies, from roughly fourteen minutes to up to forty minutes. For a Lunar asset the round-trip light time is measured in only a few seconds, but current communications systems may more than double the latency with system overhead. For a Lunar Asset the total command latency may range from six seconds to more than forty, depending on communications overhead and data rates. Further, these variables are not always predictable, thus complicating operations. There are several differentiating factors for Lunar vs. Mars operations, Round trip light time/Atmosphere/Lighting and ShadowsTerrain type and knowledge/Round trip light time has implications for the distribution of tasks between ground and in space assets. Even at Lunar Distances, the combination of round trip light time plus communications systems overhead does not enable joy stick driving of a rover. The best that can be done, if driving from Earth, is near real time command and control. By 2030, driving from in space may be possible. Productivity on Mars requires either long operational sequences of commands, as is done for current rovers such as Curiosity, significant autonomous capability or, as may be possible by 2030, command and control support from space. Another implication of the long round trip light time from Earth to Mars, is that flight software functions must be resident on the in space asset. On the Moon, there is considerably more flexibility, enabling processing functions, to be resident on Earth or in space. This provides the opportunity to take advantage of the considerable processing power available on the ground, but may be constrained by data rates. On the Moon, for practical operational purposes, there is no atmosphere. Hence there is no scattering of light in the shadows. This has implications for image interpretation and driving near the poles. The Moon has permanently shadowed regions (PSR), unique terrain with unknown surface properties. With no scattering of light in shadows, driving on the Moon, particularly at the poles, where we have strong evidence of water, may prove to be hazardous and complex, requiring non-optical sensors, such as LIDAR.

Trimble, Jay↗
DOE OSTI2020

Synthesis and Characterization of Pd-based Nanomaterials

Bimetallic nanoparticles (BNPs) consist of two different types of metals or alloys that are bonded together. Unique properties such as optical, electronic, thermal, and catalytic effects differ for each type of BNP. Important BNPs range from Au-Pd, Ag- Pt, Au-Pt, and Ag-Ni. Pd bimetallic nanoparticles are of interest due to their many applications such as catalysis and sensing. Bimetallic catalysts have increase reaction rates and have improved catalyst stability through the geometry and ligand distribution. Pd nanoparticles are considered to be a strong catalyst due to their high activity at low temperatures and high tolerance to moisture. The catalytic properties of bimetallic nanoparticles depend on the structural properties such as size and shape. Core-shell, hollow structure, and multi-shell alloy are three possible structures nanoparticles can form as bimetallic catalysts. BNPs can be synthesized through different methods to control the size, shape, and structure. To obtain different morphologies, a variety of methods can be performed. Different methods can range from the usage of the glancing angle deposition (GLAD) to the galvanic replacement reaction, but the methods all depend on the properties of the metals. The galvanic displacement reaction was the method used to obtain Pd-based nanoparticles. This reaction is best know for obtaining hollow shaped NPs. To determine what redox process was preformed, the activity series of metals was used. From the activity series of metals, silver (Ag) was selected to preform Pd-based nanoparticles. Objectives: Synthesize Ag nanoparticles and Ag-Pd nanoparticles to understand the morphology. Characterize the synthesized nanoparticles using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), phase analysis light scattering (PALS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and UV-Vis spectroscopy. Results: In the UV-Vis spectrum, the Ag-Pd bimetallic NP's plasmon band decreased as the volume of palladium increased. The surface charge increases as the concentration of palladium increases. The Pd{sup 2+} ions interact with the sodium citrate surface, and decrease the negative charge. Conclusion: Ag-Pd nanoparticles were successfully created and stabilized with sodium citrate. The addition of Pd decreased the prominent plasmon band of the Ag nanoparticles. The SEM analysis showed that Ag nanoparticles had a well-defined structure, while the Ag-Pd nanoparticles showed hollow and rough structure. The EDX analysis confirmed the presence of silver and palladium. This material can be used in many industrial and research fields such as organic synthesis, fuel cells, and environmental sensing and remediation.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS2014

High-Energy Pulsar Models: Developments and New Questions

The past few years have seen a major advance in observational knowledge of high-energy (HE) pulsars. The Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) and AGILE have increased the number of known gamma-ray pulsars by an order of magnitude, its members being divided roughly equally among millisecond pulsars (MSPs), young radio-loud pulsars, and young radio-quiet pulsars. Many new and diverse emission characteristics are being measured, while radio and X-ray follow-up observations increase the pulsar detection rate and enrich our multiwavelength picture of these extreme sources. The wealth of new data has provided impetus for further development and improvement of existing theoretical pulsar models. Geometric light curve (LC) modelling has uncovered three broad classes into which HE pulsars fall: those where the radio profile leads, is aligned with, or lags the gamma-ray profile. For example, the original MSP and original black widow system are members of the second class, requiring co-located emission regions and thereby breaking with traditional notions of radio emission origin. These models imply narrow accelerator gaps in the outer magnetosphere, indicating copious pair production even in MSP magnetospheres that were previously thought to be pair-starved. The increased quality and variety of the LCs necessitate construction of ever more sophisticated models. We will review progress in global magnetosphere solutions which specify a finite conductivity on field lines above the stellar surface, filling the gap between the standard vacuum and force-free (FF; plasma-filled) models. The possibility of deriving phase-resolved spectra for the brightest pulsars, coupled with the fact that the HE pulsar population is sizable enough to allow sampling of various pulsar geometries, will enable much more stringent testing of future radiation models. Reproduction of the observed phase-resolved behavior of this disparate group will be one of the next frontiers in pulsar science, impacting on our understanding of particle acceleration, emission, and magnetosphere geometry. One may now also study evolutionary trends of the measured or inferred quantities, and probe pulsar visibility and population properties such as radiation beam sizes of different pulsar classes, as well as the distribution of spin-down power, gamma-ray luminosity, conversion efficiency, spectral index, and cutoff energy across the population. Lastly, the recent detection of very-high-energy (VHE) pulsations from the Crab pulsar generated quite a few ideas to explain this emission, leading to an extension of standard models and possibly even a bridge between the physics of pulsars and pulsar wind nebulae (PWNe).

gamma rays:↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Examination of L-Band Brightness Temperature Forecasts in the SMAP Level-4 Soil Moisture Analysis

The NASA Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission [4] has been providing L-band (1.4 GHz) passive microwave brightness temperature (Tb) observations since April 2015. By assimilating the Tb observations into the NASA Catchment land surface model [5] using a spatially distributed ensemble Kalman filter, the NASA Global Modeling and Assimilation Office generates the SMAP Level-4 Soil Moisture (L4_SM) product, which provides global, 3-hourly, 9-km resolution estimates of surface (0-5 cm) and root-zone (0-100 cm) soil moisture with ~2.5-day latency for use in research and applications [6]. The L4_SM product also includes estimates of soil temperature, land surface fluxes, and assimilation diagnostics such as the model forecast and observed Tb values [7]. The output from the L4_SM system is routinely monitored by the L4_SM team. Such monitoring provides valuable information; instances of unusually large Tb observation-minus-forecast (O-F) residuals can indicate events during which soil moisture conditions are poorly described in the land modeling system [7,8]. For example, repeated occurrences of very large Tb O-F values in central Australia were traced back to deficiencies in the gauge-based precipitation product used in the land modeling system through L4_SM Version 5; this discovery prompted the use, beginning in Version 6, of satellite- and gauge-based precipitation observations outside of North America [9]. Recently, a statistical analysis of the Tb O-F residuals revealed systematic errors in the “tau-omega” L-band radiative transfer model that converts the land-model simulated soil moisture and temperature into the forecast Tb prior to the L4_SM analysis. The L4_SM analysis is built on the ensemble Kalman filter and assumes unbiased forecast errors. The presence of systematic Tb forecast errors could thus adversely impact the quality of the analyzed soil moisture. In this paper, we examine the Tb O-F residuals of the latest Version 7 L4_SM data (Science Version ID Vv7030 and Vv7032) [10,11,12]. In the L4_SM Version 7 algorithm, key parameters of the L-band radiative transfer model, including soil roughness, scattering albedo, and a (seasonally varying) climatology of vegetation opacity, are obtained from the SMAP Level-2 Radiometer retrieval product (Version 5) [1]. Additionally, we also use ground measurements of surface soil moisture and soil temperature from the SMAP core validation sites as in situ reference of soil conditions [2,3]. As part of the L4_SM system calibration, the seasonally-varying bias between the model forecast Tb and the observed values is removed prior to the assimilation of the SMAP Tb observations [7]. That is, the L4_SM system is designed to only correct errors in synoptic-scale and interannual variations from the long-term mean seasonal cycle while maintaining the model’s (potentially erroneous) climatology. The Tb O-F residuals examined here are thus computed using SMAP Tb observations after they are rescaled to the mean seasonal cycle of Tb from the modeling system without SMAP data assimilation. Consequently, the long-term average of the Tb O-F residuals has a global mean of only 0.13 K and locally small values, ranging from -1 to 3 K. Despite the small time-average values of the Tb O-F residuals, the model forecast Tb was nevertheless found to exhibit undesirable systematic errors. At some locations, the time-average Tb O-F values strongly depend on surface soil moisture (SM). At the Yanco SMAP core validation site, for example, the Tb O-F residuals typically range from 5 to 15 K under dry soil moisture conditions (SM < 0.15 m3 m-3) yet are predominantly negative under wet soil moisture conditions (SM > 0.25 m3 m-3), with values ranging from 0 to -40 K. This results in soil moisture analysis increments that persistently make the soil drier under dry SM conditions and persistently make the soil wetter under wet SM conditions, suggesting an error in the dynamic range of the simulated Tb, soil moisture or soil temperature. In this paper, we describe the higher-order systematic Tb forecast errors in more detail, examine their impact on the L4_SM product quality, and explore potential avenues to further improve the L4_SM algorithm.

Rolf Reichle↗
NASA NTRS2013

Evaluation of preindustrial to present-day black carbon and its albedo forcing from Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP)

As part of the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP), we evaluate the historical black carbon (BC) aerosols simulated by 8 ACCMIP models against observations including 12 ice core records, long-term surface mass concentrations, and recent Arctic BC snowpack measurements. We also estimate BC albedo forcing by performing additional simulations using offline models with prescribed meteorology from 1996-2000. We evaluate the vertical profile of BC snow concentrations from these offline simulations using the recent BC snowpack measurements. Despite using the same BC emissions, the global BC burden differs by approximately a factor of 3 among models due to differences in aerosol removal parameterizations and simulated meteorology: 34 Gg to 103 Gg in 1850 and 82 Gg to 315 Gg in 2000. However, the global BC burden from preindustrial to present-day increases by 2.5-3 times with little variation among models, roughly matching the 2.5-fold increase in total BC emissions during the same period.We find a large divergence among models at both Northern Hemisphere (NH) and Southern Hemisphere (SH) high latitude regions for BC burden and at SH high latitude regions for deposition fluxes. The ACCMIP simulations match the observed BC surface mass concentrations well in Europe and North America except at Ispra. However, the models fail to predict the Arctic BC seasonality due to severe underestimations during winter and spring. The simulated vertically resolved BC snow concentrations are, on average, within a factor of 2-3 of the BC snowpack measurements except for Greenland and the Arctic Ocean. For the ice core evaluation, models tend to adequately capture both the observed temporal trends and the magnitudes at Greenland sites. However, models fail to predict the decreasing trend of BC depositions/ice core concentrations from the 1950s to the 1970s in most Tibetan Plateau ice cores. The distinct temporal trend at the Tibetan Plateau ice cores indicates a strong influence from Western Europe, but the modeled BC increases in that period are consistent with the emission changes in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, South and East Asia. At the Alps site, the simulated BC suggests a strong influence from Europe, which agrees with the Alps ice core observations. At Zuoqiupu on the Tibetan Plateau, models successfully simulate the higher BC concentrations observed during the non-monsoon season compared to the monsoon season but overpredict BC in both seasons. Despite a large divergence in BC deposition at two Antarctic ice core sites, some models with a BC lifetime of less than 7 days are able to capture the observed concentrations. In 2000 relative to 1850, globally and annually averaged BC surface albedo forcing from the offline simulations ranges from 0.014 to 0.019Wm−2 among the ACCMIP models. Comparing offline and online BC albedo forcings computed by some of the same models, we find that the global annual mean can vary by up to a factor of two because of different aerosol models or different BC-snow parameterizations and snow cover. The spatial distributions of the offline BC albedo forcing in 2000 show especially high BC forcing (i.e., over 0.1W/sq. m) over Manchuria, Karakoram, and most of the Former USSR. Models predict the highest global annual mean BC forcing in 1980 rather than 2000, mostly driven by the high fossil fuel and biofuel emissions in the Former USSR in 1980.

snow cover↗
DOE OSTI2021

Evaluating the Feasibility of Measuring and Analyzing Strain Caused by Changes in Barometric Pressure in the Vadose Zone

Changes in barometric pressure propagate into the subsurface where they can affect water level measurements in wells and cause vertical strain. Previous strain sensors were developed to measure vertical strain, but they were limited to measurements at a single depth, making it difficult to evaluate strains from a migrating pressure wave. Technology known as Coherence-length-gated Microwave Photonics Interferometry (CMPI) uses optical fiber sensors to measure strain at multiple locations. It has the potential to detect strain caused by variations in barometric pressure at multiple depths in the subsurface. The goal of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of using this technology to record the changes in vertical strain in the vadose zone from small fluctuations in air pressure. Propagation of these air pressure fluctuations is affected by hydrogeological properties such as water content and permeability. A second goal of this study is to evaluate how these properties affect the air pressure distribution, strain, and gas-phase diffusivity with a long-term goal of using strain to monitor the vadose zone. The focus of this study is on a suite of laboratory experiments that used a sand-filled column with an open head space. The CMPI fiber was packaged and embedded along the axis of the column to measure the strain at multiple locations while air pressure transducers were installed through the wall of the column. Small periodic fluctuations in air pressure, similar to barometric pressure fluctuations, were created in the head space of the column using an audio driven speaker driven at 4 Hz using a sinusoidal signal created by a function generator. Then, the fluctuations propagated along the column where they were measured by the transducers and recorded as functions of time. Initial tests were conducted using dry sand, but then additional tests were conducted after injecting water into the column, which changed the hydrologic and mechanical properties. Another experiment was conducted after creating a thin barrier to air flow, which was designed to simulate a thin layer of saturated ground during rainfall. A final experiment was conducted by changing the grain size of the material to create a heterogeneity in the upper half of the column. The suite of six experiments was conducted to highlight effects of variations in water content and heterogeneities on air pressure and vertical strain. Numerical simulations were also created to evaluate the laboratory data and to provide a baseline analysis for the results. The numerical simulations used the governing equations to linear poroelasticity and two-phase flow with boundary conditions representing the experiments. The conceptual model for strain caused by barometric pressure recognizes that a fluctuating barometric pressure causes fluctuations in the air pore pressure that decrease in amplitude and lag in time with increase depth. The pressure distribution results in two different loads that cause strain: 1.) a mechanical load as the barometric pressure acts on the ground surface; and 2.) pressure loading in the pore space. The results show that the total vertical strain is a contribution of both of these loads, and this is the strain that was observed in the laboratory. The lab experiments show that both air pressure and strain vary as sinusoids that propagate with depth. The amplitude of the air pressure and strain decrease as a function of depth in all the conditions that were evaluate. For example, in the dry sand, the amplitude of the air pressure decreases from 25 Pa at the head space to 5 Pa at a depth of 70 cm, whereas the amplitude of the strain decreases from 0.15 to 0.06 µε over the same depth interval. In many cases the amplitudes decrease is approximately negative exponential functions of depth. When water was injected into the sand and the saturation increased, the amplitude of the air pressure increased in the partially saturated sand but decreased sharply to zero where the soil was saturated. The strain decreased with depth, but the transition from partially to fully saturated conditions had little effect on the strain profile, even though it had a major effect on the air pressure. This apparently is because strain is caused by variations in both water and air pressure. The fluctuating air pressure caused the water pressure to fluctuate, which caused strain throughout the column. Phase delay of the air pressure and the strain both increase as linear to bi-linear functions of depth. The phase delays indicate that pressure propagates at a velocity of 7 to 8 m/s in dry or partially saturated sand, but it drops by more than an order of magnitude in the vicinity of the capillary fringe. The phase delays indicate the strain propagates faster than the pressure. The data indicate that the strain propagates from 1.2 to more than 4x faster than the pressure. Switching from sand to silt in the column caused the velocity of the pressure to drop by roughly half for both pressures, but curiously, it had little effect on the velocity of the strain.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗