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NASA NTRS2013

Composite Crew Module (CCM) Permeability Characterization

In January 2007, the NASA Administrator chartered the NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC) to form an Agency team to design and build a composite crew module in 18 months in order to gain hands-on experience in anticipation that future exploration systems may be made of composite materials. One of the conclusions from this Composite Crew Module Primary Structure assessment was that there was a lack of understanding regarding the ability for composite pressure shells to contain consumable gases, which posed a technical risk relative to the use of a metallic design. After the completion of the Composite Crew Module test program, the test article was used in a new program to assess the overall leakage/permeability and identify specific features associated with high leak rates. This document contains the outcome of the leakage assessment.

Kirsch, Michael T.↗

DOE OSTI2018

Zeolite-like MOF nanocrystals incorporated 6FDA-polyimide mixed-matrix membranes for CO 2 /CH 4 separation

MOF mixed-matrix membranes (MMMs) are regarded as potential candidates for energy-efficient natural gas purification. Our work reports the fabrication of high-performance 6FDA-polyimide MMMs, based on the incorporation of zeolite-like MOF (ZMOF) as fillers, and their associated permeation studies for CO 2 /CH 4 separation. To eliminate micron-sized crystals, a facile repeating sedimentation approach was used to harvest nanocrystals from the as-synthesized bulk ZMOF crystalline powder material. This enables the deployment of ZMOF nanocrystals with relatively uniform dimension and morphology in the polymer matrix. Typical 6FDA-polyimides encompassing distinct diamine moieties (6FDA-DAM, 6FDA-DETDA-DABA or PDMC) were explored as polymer matrices to disclose the transport property matching the hosted ZMOF filler. Mixed-gas permeation measurements revealed that the incorporation of the ZMOF filler affords a concurrent enhancement of the CO 2 permeability and the CO 2 /CH 4 selectivity for the three tested 6FDA-polyimides. Particularly, the highly permeable 6FDA-DAM showed a considerably enhanced performance for CO 2 /CH 4 that transcends the 2008 Robeson upper-bound. Detailed analysis of the sorption data and diffusion coefficients suggest that the enhanced transport property in the ZMOF-based MMM is plausibly attributed to the combination of the higher CO 2 sorption capacity and selectivity, and favorable gas diffusivity via the CO 2 -philic framework of ZMOF in moderately confined pores.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2015

Geomechanical and Fluid Transport Properties

Complex changes to fluid and mechanical properties of a pyrolyzing formation could lead to significant subsidence. Capturing subsidence requires accounting for changes in porosity due to generation and drainage of fluid. Pores, permeability and pore pressure are generated during pyrolysis of kerogen into oil and gas. In a series reaction scheme, oil is an intermediate product of pyrolysis. A large portion of oil-range fluids may be lost in an in-situ operation if the oil produced cannot be drained quickly enough. Petroleum fluid quality and production are highly dependent on the relative rates of creation, destruction, and transport of oil and gas in a given volume. All of these are dependent on the heating rate of oil shale. If oil shale is heated quickly, fluid flow may increase, but at a cost to the amount of oil that is finally extracted. To account for the effect of pore fluid on mechanical deformation, an elastic model was combined with a Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and Biot’s linear consolidation model. The overall model is poroelastic, because it accounts for rock deforming by considering the response of the bulk system and the pore fluids it contains. Biot’s linear model includes all ways that pore fluid volume can change in a system, including stress-strain interactions between pores and the bulk material. Additionally, the model captures the distinction between fluid and solid matrix compression and describes how bulk deformation is affected by fluid drainage. The fluid response to changing stress is affected by changes in pore pressure, while the bulk material responds to effective stress changes. To capture all of these effects, a number of theoretical and empirical models were employed in FLAC3D™, a rock-mechanics software package produced by Itasca Consulting Group. The basic capabilities of FLAC3D™ have been supplemented by customized algorithms for the simulation package. The most important contribution has been to develop a methodology for describing poro-thermo-mechanical properties of oil shale across the complete chronology of in situ pyrolysis. This report highlights those methods and results for inferring realistic oil shale properties.

04 OIL SHALES AND TAR SANDS↗

DOE OSTI2017

Flow, Transport, and Reaction in Porous Media: Percolation Scaling, Critical‐Path Analysis, and Effective Medium Approximation

Abstract We describe the most important developments in the application of three theoretical tools to modeling of the morphology of porous media and flow and transport processes in them. One tool is percolation theory. Although it was over 40 years ago that the possibility of using percolation theory to describe flow and transport processes in porous media was first raised, new models and concepts, as well as new variants of the original percolation model are still being developed for various applications to flow phenomena in porous media. The other two approaches, closely related to percolation theory, are the critical‐path analysis, which is applicable when porous media are highly heterogeneous, and the effective medium approximation— poor man's percolation —that provide a simple and, under certain conditions, quantitatively correct description of transport in porous media in which percolation‐type disorder is relevant. Applications to topics in geosciences include predictions of the hydraulic conductivity and air permeability, solute and gas diffusion that are particularly important in ecohydrological applications and land‐surface interactions, and multiphase flow in porous media, as well as non‐Gaussian solute transport, and flow morphologies associated with imbibition into unsaturated fractures. We describe new applications of percolation theory of solute transport to chemical weathering and soil formation, geomorphology, and elemental cycling through the terrestrial Earth surface. Wherever quantitatively accurate predictions of such quantities are relevant, so are the techniques presented here. Whenever possible, the theoretical predictions are compared with the relevant experimental data. In practically all the cases, the agreement between the theoretical predictions and the data is excellent. Also discussed are possible future directions in the application of such concepts to many other phenomena in geosciences.

Hunt, Allen G.↗

DOE OSTI2019

Basement Fault Reactivation by Fluid Injection Into Sedimentary Reservoirs: Poroelastic Effects

Abstract To investigate mechanisms of seismic fault reactivation in crystalline basement in response to fluid injection in overlying sedimentary reservoirs, we conducted three‐dimensional finite element simulations to assess the effects of direct pore pressure communication and indirect poroelastic stress transfer on the change in Coulomb failure stress of favorably oriented faults of varying permeability structure in normal, strike‐slip, and reverse faulting stress regimes. We demonstrate that the direct pore pressure effect transmitted along a hydraulically conductive fault exceeds the indirect poroelastic effect, but alone is insufficient for fault reactivation in the basement. The poroelastic effect on the Coulomb failure stress results from induced normal tractions and, to a lesser extent, from induced shear tractions that relate to the flexing of the fault as the reservoir expands poroelastically with fluid injection. Assuming a higher Biot coefficient for reservoir over basement rock as previously reported, the combined direct pore pressure and indirect poroelastic effects result in reactivation of hydraulically conductive faults in the basement in normal and strike‐slip faulting stress regimes and in the reservoir in reverse faulting regimes. Sealing normal faults that are not preferentially conductive also preferentially reactivate in the reservoir. These findings apply to injection in either hanging or footwall of normal and reverse faults. Reducing the contrast in Biot coefficient between reservoir and basement favors fault reactivation in the reservoir for injection in the footwall in normal faulting stress regimes. These simulations demonstrate that geomechanical models without coupled poroelasticity underestimate the potential of fault reactivation in crystalline basement.

Fan, Zhiqiang↗

DOE OSTI2015

Final Scientific/Technical Report – DE-EE0002960 Recovery Act. Detachment faulting and Geothermal Resources - An Innovative Integrated Geological and Geophysical Investigation of Pearl Hot Spring, Nevada

The Pearl Host Spring Geothermal Project funded by the DoE Geothermal Program was a joint academic (KU/UT & OU) and industry collaboration (Sierra and Ram Power) to investigate structural controls and the importance of low-angle normal faults on geothermal fluid flow through a multifaceted geological, geophysical, and geochemical investigation in west-central Nevada. The study clearly showed that the geothermal resources in Clayton Valley are controlled by the interplay between low-angle normal faults and active deformation related to the Walker Lane. The study not only identified potentially feasible blind geothermal resource plays in eastern Clayton Valley, but also provide a transportable template for exploration in the area of west-central Nevada and other regional and actively-deforming releasing fault bends. The study showed that deep-seated low-angle normal faults likely act as crustal scale permeability boundaries and could play an important role in geothermal circulation and funneling geothermal fluid into active fault zones. Not unique to this study, active deformation is viewed as an important gradient to rejuvenated fracture permeability aiding the long-term viability of blind geothermal resources. The technical approach for Phase I included the following components, (1) Structural and geological analysis of Pearl Hot Spring Resource, (2) (U-Th)/He thermochronometry and geothermometry, (3) detailed gravity data and modeling (plus some magnetic and resistivity), (4) Reflection and Refraction Seismic (Active Source), (5) Integration with existing and new geological/geophysical data, and (6) 3-D Earth Model, combining all data in an innovative approach combining classic work with new geochemical and geophysical methodology to detect blind geothermal resources in a cost-effective fashion.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Martini 3 Coarse-Grained Force Field for Cholesterol

Cholesterol plays a crucial role in biomembranes by regulating various properties, such as fluidity, rigidity, permeability, and organization of lipid bilayers. The latest version of the Martini model, Martini 3, offers significant improvements in interaction balance, molecular packing, and inclusion of new bead types and sizes. However, the release of the new model resulted in the need to reparameterize many core molecules, including cholesterol. Here, we describe the development and validation of a Martini 3 cholesterol model, addressing issues related to its bonded setup, shape, volume, and hydrophobicity. In conclusion, the proposed model mitigates some limitations of its Martini 2 predecessor while maintaining or improving the overall behavior.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Polymer Retention Evaluation in a Heavy Oil Sand for a Polymer Flooding Application on Alaska’s North Slope

For a polymer flooding field trial in a heavy oil reservoir on Alaska’s North Slope, polymer retention is a key parameter. Because of the economic impact of retention, this parameter was extensively studied using field core material and conditions. Several important findings were noted. Polymer retention based on effluent viscosity measurements can be overestimated unless the correct (non-linear) relation between polymer concentration and viscosity is used. Polymer degradation (either mechanical or oxidative) can also lead viscosity-based measurements to overestimate retention. Inaccessible pore volume (IAPV) can be overestimated if insufficient brine is flushed through the sand between polymer banks. Around 100 pore volumes (PV) of brine may be needed to displace mobile polymer to approach a true residual resistance factor and properly measure IAPV. Even for a sand pack with kwsor = 20 mD, IAPV was zero for HPAM with molecular weight (Mw) of 18 million g/mol. Fine-grain particles (<20 μm) strongly impacted polymer retention values. Native NB#1 sand with a significant component of particles <20 μm exhibited 290 μg/g, while the same sand exhibited 28 μg/g after these small particles were removed. Polymer retention did not necessarily correlate with mineral composition. The NB#1, NB#3, and OA sands had similar elemental and clay compositions, but the NB#1 sand exhibited ~10 times higher retention than the NB#3 sand. Polymer retention did not necessarily correlate with permeability. NB#1 sand exhibited much higher retention than OA sand, even though NB#1 sand was twice as permeable as OA sand. No evidence of chromatographic separation of HPAM molecular weights was found in our experiments. Although retention tended to be greater without a residual oil saturation (than at Sor), the effect was not strong. Aging a core (with high oil saturation) at 60°C reduced HPAM retention by a factor of two. As expected, under similar conditions, polymer retention was greater for a higher Mw HPAM (18 million g/mol) than for a lower Mw HPAM (10-12 million g/mol). In many cases with high polymer retention values (e.g., 240 μg/g), polymer arrival at the end of the core was relatively quick, but achieving the injected concentration occurred gradually over many pore volumes. This effect was not due chromatographic separation of polymer molecular weights. Results from modeling of this behavior was consistent with concentrationdependent polymer retention. The form assumed for the retention function in a simulator can have an important impact on the timing and magnitude of the oil response from a polymer flood. Field-based observations can underestimate polymer retention, depending on when the tracer and polymer concentrations were measured and the assumptions made about reservoir heterogeneity.

Wang, Dongmei↗

DOE OSTI2022

Integration of a high oxygen permeability ionomer into polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell cathodes for high efficiency and power density

In this work, we present a study on the integration of a high oxygen permeability ionomer (HOPI) with high durability carbon supported platinum (Pt/C) catalysts to prepare cathode catalyst layers (CCLs) for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). A key motivation is the production of PEMFCs with high efficiency and durability for heavy-duty fuel cell vehicles. Our results from integrating a pre-commercial HOPI with robust, state-of-the-art catalysts with medium and low surface area carbon supports show significant increases in specific activities (67% increase over the standard commercial ionomer) at low current densities and reduced oxygen (O 2 ) transport resistances (R O2 ’s) at high current densities, enabling both higher efficiency and peak power density. The reduction in the R O2 with the HOPI is most significant at low relative humidity (RH), due to its more rigid backbone structure resisting compaction at lower water contents. In our ink optimization analysis, we show that the HOPI in this study achieves its peak performance with an ionomer to carbon ratio (I/C) of 0.6 and a moderately alcohol-rich ink solvent when fabricating catalyst layers by the decal method with an automatic wet film coater.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2016

Mixing effects on geothermometric calculations of the Newdale geothermal area in the Eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho

The Newdale geothermal area in Madison and Fremont Counties in Idaho is a known geothermal resource area whose thermal anomaly is expressed by high thermal gradients and numerous wells producing warm water (up to 51 °C). Geologically, the Newdale geothermal area is located within the Eastern Snake River Plain (ESRP) that has a time-transgressive history of sustained volcanic activities associated with the passage of Yellowstone Hotspot from the southwestern part of Idaho to its current position underneath Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming. Locally, the Newdale geothermal area is located within an area that was subjected to several overlapping and nested caldera complexes. The Tertiary caldera forming volcanic activities and associated rocks have been buried underneath Quaternary flood basalts and felsic volcanic rocks. Two southeast dipping young faults (Teton dam fault and an unnamed fault) in the area provide the structural control for this localized thermal anomaly zone. Geochemically, water samples from numerous wells in the area can be divided into two broad groups – Na-HCO3 and Ca-(Mg)-HCO3 type waters and are considered to be the product of water-rhyolite and water-basalt interactions, respectively. Each type of water can further be subdivided into two groups depending on their degree of mixing with other water types or interaction with other rocks. For example, some bivariate plots indicate that some Ca-(Mg)-HCO3 water samples have interacted only with basalts whereas some samples of this water type also show limited interaction with rhyolite or mixing with Na-HCO3 type water. Traditional geothermometers [e.g., silica variants, Na-K-Ca (Mg-corrected)] indicate lower temperatures for this area; however, a traditional silica-enthalpy mixing model results in higher reservoir temperatures. We applied a new multicomponent equilibrium geothermometry tool (e.g., Reservoir Temperature Estimator, RTEst) that is based on inverse geochemical modeling which explicitly accounts for boiling, mixing, and CO2 degassing. RTEst modeling results indicate that the well water samples are mixed with up to 75% of the near surface groundwater. Relatively, Ca-(Mg)-HCO3 type water samples are more diluted than the Na-HCO3 type water samples. However, both water types result in similar reservoir temperatures, up to 150 °C. Samples in the vicinity of faults produced higher reservoir temperatures than samples away from the faults. Although both the silica-enthalpy mixing and RTEst models indicated promising geothermal reservoir temperatures, evaluation of the subsurface permeability and extent of the thermal anomaly is needed to define the hydrothermal potential of the Newdale geothermal resource.

Eastern Snake River Plain, Newdale, RTEst, geother↗

DOE OSTI2015

Effectiveness of an in-situ permeable reactive barrier in removing strontium-90 from groundwater - 15418

An in-situ permeable reactive barrier (PRB) is being used to remove strontium-90 from groundwater along the 100-N Area shoreline at the U.S. Department of Energy Hanford Site in southeastern Washington. The PRB was formed by emplacing apatite, a calcium phosphate mineral, in the subsurface sediments via injection of calcium-citrate and sodium-phosphate solution into the aquifer through a network of vertical wells. The relatively slow biodegradation of citrate allowed sufficient time for the injected solution to disperse in the PRB treatment zone as the free calcium and phosphate combined to form apatite. Substitution of strontium for calcium in the apatite crystal structure is thermodynamically favorable. As groundwater flows through the PRB toward the Columbia River, strontium-90 is sequestered into the apatite crystal matrix. The sequestered strontium-90 undergoes radioactive decay in place within the PRB. Groundwater monitoring wells installed between the PRB and the Columbia River are used to monitor the PRB effectiveness. The concentration of strontium-90 in the monitoring wells following apatite emplacement are compared to the pre-injection concentrations. The performance goal of the PRB is to reduce the concentration of strontium-90 in groundwater down gradient of the PRB by 90 percent, compared to the pre-injection concentrations. Groundwater samples in Fall 2013 show the percent reduction in strontium-90 concentrations ranged from 71 to 98 percent in eleven of the twelve monitoring wells. The data indicate that the PRB is effective in reducing the flux of strontium-90 toward the Columbia River and is thereby instrumental in protection of the Columbia River. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

NASA NTRS2006

An Initial Non-Equilibrium Porous-Media Model for CFD Simulation of Stirling Regenerators

The objective of this paper is to define empirical parameters (or closwre models) for an initial thermai non-equilibrium porous-media model for use in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) codes for simulation of Stirling regenerators. The two CFD codes currently being used at Glenn Research Center (GRC) for Stirling engine modeling are Fluent and CFD-ACE. The porous-media models available in each of these codes are equilibrium models, which assmne that the solid matrix and the fluid are in thermal equilibrium at each spatial location within the porous medium. This is believed to be a poor assumption for the oscillating-flow environment within Stirling regenerators; Stirling 1-D regenerator models, used in Stirling design, we non-equilibrium regenerator models and suggest regenerator matrix and gas average temperatures can differ by several degrees at a given axial location end time during the cycle. A NASA regenerator research grant has been providing experimental and computational results to support definition of various empirical coefficients needed in defining a noa-equilibrium, macroscopic, porous-media model (i.e., to define "closure" relations). The grant effort is being led by Cleveland State University, with subcontractor assistance from the University of Minnesota, Gedeon Associates, and Sunpower, Inc. Friction-factor and heat-transfer correlations based on data taken with the NASAlSunpower oscillating-flow test rig also provide experimentally based correlations that are useful in defining parameters for the porous-media model; these correlations are documented in Gedeon Associates' Sage Stirling-Code Manuals. These sources of experimentally based information were used to define the following terms and parameters needed in the non-equilibrium porous-media model: hydrodynamic dispersion, permeability, inertial coefficient, fluid effective thermal conductivity (including themal dispersion and estimate of tortuosity effects}, and fluid-solid heat transfer coefficient. Solid effective thermal conductivity (including the effect of tortuosity) was also estimated. Determination of the porous-media model parameters was based on planned use in a CFD model of Infinia's Stirling Technology Demonstration Convertor (TDC), which uses a random-fiber regenerator matrix. The non-equilibrium porous-media model presented is considered to be an initial, or "draft," model for possible incorporation in commercial CFD codes, with the expectation that the empirical parameters will likely need to be updated once resulting Stirling CFD model regenerator and engine results have been analyzed. The emphasis of the paper is on use of available data to define empirical parameters (and closure models) needed in a thermal non-equilibrium porous-media model for Stirling regenerator simulation. Such a model has not yet been implemented by the authors or their associates. However, it is anticipated that a thermal non-equilibrium model such as that presented here, when iacorporated in the CFD codes, will improve our ability to accurately model Stirling regenerators with CFD relative to current thermal-equilibrium porous-media models.

Tew, Roy↗

DOE OSTI2018

A new numerically stable sequential algorithm for coupled finite-strain elastoplastic geomechanics and flow

In this work, we propose a new numerically stable sequential implicit method for coupled flow and finite-strain multiplicative elastoplastic geomechanics. We find from stability analysis that the sequential method that solves the flow problem first by fixing the first Piola-Kirchhoff total stress, solving the geomechanics (solid deformation) problem at the next step, is unconditionally stable (contractive and B-stable). In this sense, this method named the fixed first Piola-Kirchhoff stress method is an extension of the fixed stress method in coupled flow and infinitesimal geomechanics. We also study the fixed second Piola-Kirchhoff stress method, comparing it with the fixed first Piola-Kirchhoff stress method, because the constitutive relations are formulated by the second Piola-Kirchhoff total stress, although fixing the second Piola-Kirchhoff total stress field does not provide theoretical unconditional stability. In space discretization, we use the finite element method for the geomechanics problem with the total Lagrangian approach, while employing the finite volume method for the flow problem. Geometrical nonlinearity from the total Lagrangian approach results in full-tensor permeability even if the initial permeability is isotropic. To consider the full-tensor permeability accurately, we employ the multipoint flux approximation in solving the flow problem. In time discretization, the backward Euler method is used. Then, we perform numerical experiments of the two fixed-stress sequential methods with various scenarios, and find superiority of their numerical stability. Specifically, the two fixed-stress sequential methods provide almost identical results for elasticity. For J2 plasticity, the two sequential methods yield slightly different numerical results although the trends of the results are similar. For the Drucker-Prager plasticity, we find that the results from the two methods are almost identical. For all the test cases, the two sequential methods are numerically stable.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2016

Semi-solid electrodes having high rate capability

Embodiments described herein relate generally to electrochemical cells having high rate capability, and more particularly to devices, systems and methods of producing high capacity and high rate capability batteries having relatively thick semi-solid electrodes. In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell includes an anode and a semi-solid cathode. The semi-solid cathode includes a suspension of an active material of about 35% to about 75% by volume of an active material and about 0.5% to about 8% by volume of a conductive material in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. An ion-permeable membrane is disposed between the anode and the semi-solid cathode. The semi-solid cathode has a thickness of about 250 .mu.m to about 2,000 .mu.m, and the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least about 7 mAh/cm.sup.2 at a C-rate of C/4. In some embodiments, the semi-solid cathode slurry has a mixing index of at least about 0.9.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2017

Semi-solid electrodes having high rate capability

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2019

Semi-solid electrodes having high rate capability

Embodiments described herein relate generally to electrochemical cells having high rate capability, and more particularly to devices, systems and methods of producing high capacity and high rate capability batteries having relatively thick semi-solid electrodes. In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell includes an anode and a semi-solid cathode. The semi-solid cathode includes a suspension of an active material of about 35% to about 75% by volume of an active material and about 0.5% to about 8% by volume of a conductive material in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. An ion-permeable membrane is disposed between the anode and the semi-solid cathode. The semi-solid cathode has a thickness of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm, and the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least about 7 mAh/cm2 at a C-rate of C/4. In some embodiments, the semi-solid cathode slurry has a mixing index of at least about 0.9.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Semi-solid electrodes having high rate capability

Embodiments described herein relate generally to electrochemical cells having high rate capability, and more particularly to devices, systems and methods of producing high capacity and high rate capability batteries having relatively thick semi-solid electrodes. In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell includes an anode and a semi-solid cathode. The semi-solid cathode includes a suspension of an active material of about 35% to about 75% by volume of an active material and about 0.5% to about 8% by volume of a conductive material in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. An ion-permeable membrane is disposed between the anode and the semi-solid cathode. The semi-solid cathode has a thickness of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm, and the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least about 7 mAh/cm2 at a C-rate of C/4. In some embodiments, the semi-solid cathode slurry has a mixing index of at least about 0.9.

Chiang, Yet-Ming↗

DOE OSTI2023

Semi-solid electrodes having high rate capability

Embodiments described herein relate generally to electrochemical cells having high rate capability, and more particularly to devices, systems and methods of producing high capacity and high rate capability batteries having relatively thick semi-solid electrodes. In some embodiments, an electrochemical cells includes an anode and a semi-solid cathode. The semi-solid cathode includes a suspension of an active material of about 35% to about 75% by volume of an active material and about 0.5% to about 8% by volume of a conductive material in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. An ion-permeable membrane is disposed between the anode and the semi-solid cathode. The semi-solid cathode has a thickness of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm, and the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least about 7 mAh/cm 2 at a C-rate of C/4. In some embodiments, the semi-solid cathode slurry has a mixing index of at least about 0.9.

Chiang, Yet-Ming↗