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At least 667 records · Page 37

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DOE OSTI2025

Advanced System Thermal Fluids Solver Development for SAM

This work summarizes a feasibility study on testing numerical algorithms that are suitable and efficient for advanced system analysis code development under the mutli-physics framework, MOOSE. The key is the implementation of a high-order one-dimensional staggered-grid finite volume method (SG-FVM), and its direct interaction with the linear/nonlinear solver, PETSc. Leveraging the existing capabilities of the SAM code, significant code coverages were established in the finite volume method code. This in turn allows for a suite of test problems with different problem sizes and levels of complexity to be used to quantify the performance improvement of the finite volume method code. As evidently shown in this study, the implemented SG-FVM demonstrated superior performance improvement against a direct finite element method implementation through MOOSE for the wide range of selected problems. On two computer systems, the speedup was observed to be significant, with at least one order of magnitude of solving time reduction. In addition, for a complex reactor model, transient simulation was performed using the finite volume method code, the results of which agree very well with the reference results from the finite element method code. Overall, this study demonstrates a successful feasibility study on the proposed numerical algorithms and software structure to support advanced system analysis tool development. In this work, short-term priority development and testing items were identified, and long-term code adoption and integration plans were made for the eventual deployment of the finite volume method in the SAM code.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2016

Theoretical estimates of equilibrium sulfur isotope effects in aqueous sulfur systems: Highlighting the role of isomers in the sulfite and sulfoxylate systems

We present theoretical calculations for all three isotope ratios of sulfur ( 33 S/ 32 S, 34 S/ 32 S, 36 S/ 32 S) at the B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) level of theory for aqueous sulfur compounds modeled in 30–40H 2 O clusters spanning the range of sulfur oxidation state (S n , n = -2 to +6) for estimating equilibrium fractionation factors in aqueous systems. Computed 34 β values based on major isotope ( 34 S/ 32 S) reduced partition function ratios (RPFRs) scale to a first order with sulfur oxidation state and coordination, where 34 β generally increase with higher oxidation state and increasing coordination of the sulfur atom. Exponents defining mass dependent relationships based on β values ( x/34 κ = ln( x β)/ln( 34 β), x = 33 or 36) conform to tight ranges over a wide range of temperature for all aqueous compounds ( 33/34 κ ≈ 0.5148–0.5159, 36/34 κ ≈ 1.89–1.90 from T &sccue; 0 °C). The exponents converge near a singular value for all compounds at the high temperature limit ( 33/34 κT→∞= 0.51587 ± 0.00003 and 36/34 κT→∞= 1.8905 ± 0.0002; 1 s.d. of all computed compounds), and typically follow trends based on oxidation state and coordination similar to those seen in 34 β values at lower temperatures. Theoretical equilibrium fractionation factors computed from these β-values are compared to experimental constraints for HSO 3 - T(aq)/SO 2(g, aq) , SO 2(aq) /SO 2(g) , H 2 S (aq) /H 2 S (g) , H 2 S (aq) /HS - (aq) , SO 4 2- (aq) /H 2 S T(aq) , S 2 O 3 2- (aq) (intramolecular), and S 2 O 3 2- (aq) /H 2 S T(aq) , and generally agree within a reasonable estimation of uncertainties. We make predictions of fractionation factors where other constraints are unavailable. Isotope partitioning of the isomers of protonated compounds in the sulfite and sulfoxylate systems depend strongly on whether protons are bound to either sulfur or oxygen atoms. The magnitude of the HSO 3 - T /SO 3 2- major isotope ( 34 S/ 32 S) fractionation factor is predicted to increase with temperature from 0 to 70 °C due to the combined effects of the large magnitude (HS)O 3 - /SO 3 2- fractionation factor (1000ln 34 α (HS)bisulfite-sulfite = 19.9‰, 25 °C) relative to the (HO)SO 2 - /SO 3 2- fractionation factor (1000ln 34 α (HO)bisulfite–sulfite = -2.2‰, 25 °C), and the increased stability of the (HS)O 3 - isomer with increasing temperature. Finally, we argue that isomerization phenomenon should be considered in models of the sulfur cycle, including models that describe the overall sulfur isotope fractionations associated with microbial metabolism (e.g., microbial sulfate reduction).

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE METHODS AND PROTOCOLS WITH APPLICATION TO DYNAMICS, KINETICS AND THERMOCHEMISTRY

Hydrocarbon combustion involves the reaction dynamics of a tremendous number of species beginning with many-component fuel mixtures and proceeding via a complex system of intermediates to form primary and secondary products. Combustion conditions corresponding to new advanced engines and/or alternative fuels rely increasingly on autoignition and low-temperature-combustion chemistry. In these regimes various transient radical species such as HO2, ROO·, ·QOOH, HCO, NO2, HOCO, and Criegee intermediates play important roles in determining the detailed as well as more general dynamics. A clear understanding and accurate representation of these processes is needed for effective modeling. Given the difficulties associated with making reliable experimental measurements of these systems, computation can play an important role in developing these energy technologies. Accurate calculations have their own challenges since even within the simplest dynamical approximations such as transition state theory, the rates depend exponentially on critical barrier heights and these may be sensitive to the level of quantum chemistry. Moreover, it is well-known that in many cases it is necessary to go beyond statistical theories and consider the dynamics. Quantum tunneling, resonances, radiative transitions, and non-adiabatic effects governed by spin-orbit or derivative coupling can be determining factors in those dynamics. Building upon progress made during a period of prior support through the DOE Early Career Program, this project combines developments in the areas of potential energy surface (PES) fitting and multistate multireference quantum chemistry to allow spectroscopically and dynamically/kinetically accurate investigations of key molecular systems (such as those mentioned above), many of which are radicals with strong multireference character and have the possibility of multiple electronic states contributing to the observed dynamics. An ongoing area of investigation is to develop general strategies for robustly convergent electronic structure theory for global multichannel reactive surfaces including diabatization of energy and other relevant surfaces such as dipole transition. Combining advances in ab initio methods with automated interpolative PES fitting allows the construction of high-quality PESs (incorporating thousands of high-level data) to be done rapidly through parallel processing on high-performance computing (HPC) clusters. In addition, new methods and approaches to electronic structure theory will be developed and tested through applications. This project will explore limitations in traditional multireference calculations (e.g., MRCI) such as those imposed by internal contraction, lack of high-order correlation treatment and poor scaling. Methods such as DMRG-based extended active-space CASSCF and various Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) methods will be applied (including VMC/DMC and FCIQMC). Insight into the relative significance of different orbital spaces and the robustness of application of these approaches on leadership class computing architectures will be gained. Synergy with other components of this research program such as automated PES fitting and multireference quantum chemistry will be used to address challenges encountered by the standard approaches to computational thermochemistry (those being single-reference quantum chemistry and perturbative treatments of the anharmonic vibrational energy, which break down for some cases of electronic structure or floppy strongly coupled vibrational modes).

74 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2016

Samba: A Detailed Memory Management Unit (MMU) for the SST Simulation Framework

The Memory Management Unit (MMU) is one of the most important parts of any modern computing system. It can be thought of as the hardware support for virtual memory, which enforces access permissions, and manages the translation of processes' virtual addresses into real memory physical addresses. The operating system (OS) allocates the physical memory in a small granularity frames that can be accessed by processes with appropriate permissions. Each process has the illusion of having an entire memory space, however, the actual addresses issued by the process, (`virtual addresses'), are translated into the physical frame address allocated by the OS through virtual memory.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2019

Lazy Shadowing: An Adaptive, Power-Aware, Resiliency Framework for Extreme Scale Computing

The inherent instability of extreme-scale computing systems puts into question the viability of traditional fault-tolerance methods and calls for a reconsideration of the fault-tolerance and power-awareness problem, at scale. This project explores a novel paradigm, Lazy Shadowing, to achieve high resiliency in future extreme-scale systems. The basic tenet of Lazy Shadowing is the association of a shadow with each process which runs in parallel, but on a different node and at a reduced execution rate, than its associated process. The successful completion of the main process causes the immediate termination of the shadow, resulting in significant energy savings. Upon failure of the main process, however, the shadow’s execution rate is increased so that it completes by the expected completion time without significantly impacting the progress of the remaining tasks. Different approaches can be used to control execution rate, including co-locating multiple shadows on a single computing node and/or using Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2020

Designing a parallel Feel-the-Way clustering algorithm on HPC systems

This paper introduces a new parallel clustering algorithm, named Feel-the-Way clustering algorithm, that provides better or equivalent convergence rate than the traditional clustering methods by optimizing the synchronization and communication costs. Our algorithm design centers on how to optimize three factors simultaneously: reduced synchronizations, improved convergence rate, and retained same or comparable optimization cost. To compare the optimization cost, we use the Sum of Square Error (SSE) cost as the metric, which is the sum of the square distance between each data point and its assigned clusters. Compared with the traditional MPI k-means algorithm, the new Feel-the-Way algorithm requires less communications among participating processes. As for the convergence rate, the new algorithm requires fewer number of iterations to converge. As for the optimization cost, it obtains the SSE costs that are close to the k-means algorithm. In the paper, we first design the full-step Feel-the-Way k-means clustering algorithm that can significantly reduce the number of iterations that are required by the original k-means clustering method. Next, we improve the performance of the full-step algorithm by adopting an optimized sampling-based approach, named reassignment-history-aware sampling. Our experimental results show that the optimized sampling-based Feel-the-Way method is significantly faster than the widely used k-means clustering method, and can provide comparable optimization costs. More extensive experiments with several synthetic datasets and real-world datasets (e.g., MNIST, CIFAR-10, ENRON, and PLACES-2) show that the new parallel algorithm can outperform the open source MPI k-means library by up to 110% on a high-performance computing system using 4,096 CPU cores. In addition, the new algorithm can take up to 51% fewer iterations to converge than the k-means clustering algorithm.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2021

Performance Analysis of PIConGPU: Particle-in-Cell on GPUs using NVIDIA’s NSight Systems and NSight Compute

PIConGPU, Particle In Cell on GPUs, is an open source simulations framework for plasma and laser-plasma physics used to develop advanced particle accelerators for radiation therapy of cancer, high energy physics and photon science. While PIConGPU has been optimized for at least 5 years to run well on NVIDIA GPU-based clusters, there has been limited exploration by the development team of potential scalability bottlenecks using recently updated and new tools including NVIDIA’s NVProf tool and the brand-new NVIDIA NSight Suite (Systems and Compute) tools. PIConGPU is a highly optimized application that runs production jobs at scale on a system Oak Ridge Leadership Facility’s (OLCF) Summit supercomputer (using the full machine at 4600 nodes; at 98% of GPU utilization on all ~28000 NVIDIA Volta GPUs). PIConGPU has been selected as one of the the eight applications for OLCF’s coveted Center for Accelerated Application Readiness (CAAR) program aimed at the facility’s Frontier supercomputer (OLCF’s first exascale system to launch in 2021), to partner with our vendors (primary vendors: AMD and Cray/HPE) ensuring that Frontier will be able to perform large-scale science when it opens to users in 2022. To this effect, performance engineers on the PIConGPU team wanted to dive deep into the application to understand at the finest granularity, which portions of the code could be further optimized to exploit the hardware on Summit at it’s maximum potential and also to elucidate which key kernels should be tracked and optimized for the CAAR effort to port this code to Frontier. Any bottlenecks that are observed via performance profiling on Summit are likely to also impact scalability on the Frontier-dev system and the Frontier Early Access (EA) system. Additionally, the engineers wanted to take a closer look at the newest NVIDIA profiling tools which allows us to identify the most useful features on these tools and will provide an opportunity to compare it to new AMD and Cray’s performance analysis tool releases and provide feedback to our vendor partners on what features are most important and mission critical for CAAR efforts. The primary goal of this report is to focus on the evaluation of PIConGPU’s most time-intensive kernels using NVProf and NSight Suite. Three kernels, Current Deposition (also known as Compute Current), Particle Push (Move and Mark), and Shift Particles are known to be some of the most time-consuming kernels in PIConGPU. The Current xi Deposition kernel and Particle Push kernel both set up the particle attributes for running any physics simulation with PIConGPU, so it is crucial to improve the performance of these two kernels. In this report, we measure single GPU metrics for the three kernels, offer high level takeaways from the conducted analysis, and compare the profiling data from NSight Compute to that of NVProf. This analysis was performed using a grid size of 240 x 272 x 224, and 10 time steps with the Mid-November Figure of Merit (FOM) run setup. The Traveling Wave Electron Acceleration (TWEAC) science case used in this run is a representative science case for PIConGPU. This execution can also be used for baseline analysis on AMD MI50/ MI60 systems. As of the time of writing, the PIConGPU application has limited use for features of NSight Systems, so this report will mainly focus on insights garnered from NSight Compute. For this analysis, we run the “full” metric set available in NSight Compute version 2020.1.2 and use NSight Systems version 2020.3.1 to generate the application timeline.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2019

On the memory attribution problem: A solution and case study using MPI

As parallel applications running on large–scale computing systems become increasingly memory constrained, the ability to attribute memory usage to the various components of the application is becoming increasingly important. We present the design and implementation of memnesia, a novel memory usage profiler for parallel and distributed message–passing applications. Our approach captures both application– and message–passing library–specific memory usage statistics from unmodified binaries dynamically linked to a message–passing communication library. Using microbenchmarks and proxy applications, we evaluated our profiler across three Message Passing Interface (MPI) implementations and two hardware platforms. Furthermore, the results show that our approach and the corresponding implementation can accurately quantify memory resource usage as a function of time, scale, communication workload, and software or hardware system architecture, clearly distinguishing between application and MPI library memory usage at a per–process level. With this new capability, we show that job size, communication workload, and hardware/software architecture influence peak runtime memory usage. In practice, this tool provides a potentially valuable source of information for application developers seeking to measure and optimize memory usage.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2017

Evaluation of the OpenCL AES Kernel using the Intel FPGA SDK for OpenCL

The OpenCL standard is an open programming model for accelerating algorithms on heterogeneous computing system. OpenCL extends the C-based programming language for developing portable codes on different platforms such as CPU, Graphics processing units (GPUs), Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) and Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs). The Intel FPGA SDK for OpenCL is a suite of tools that allows developers to abstract away the complex FPGA-based development flow for a high-level software development flow. Users can focus on the design of hardware-accelerated kernel functions in OpenCL and then direct the tools to generate the low-level FPGA implementations. The approach makes the FPGA-based development more accessible to software users as the needs for hybrid computing using CPUs and FPGAs are increasing. It can also significantly reduce the hardware development time as users can evaluate different ideas with high-level language without deep FPGA domain knowledge. In this report, we evaluate the performance of the kernel using the Intel FPGA SDK for OpenCL and Nallatech 385A FPGA board. Compared to the M506 module, the board provides more hardware resources for a larger design exploration space. The kernel performance is measured with the compute kernel throughput, an upper bound to the FPGA throughput. The report presents the experimental results in details. The Appendix lists the kernel source code.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2016

Asynchronous In Situ Connected-Components Analysis for Complex Fluid flows, In: ISAV '16 Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on In Situ Infrastructures for Enabling Extreme-scale Analysis and Visualization

The simulation of multiscale physics is an important challenge for scientific computing. For this class of problem, large three-dimensional simulations are performed to advance scientific inquiry. On massively parallel computing systems, the volume of data generated by such approaches can become a productivity bottleneck if the raw data generated from the simulation is analyzed in a post-processing step. To address this, we present a physics-based framework for in situ data reduction that is theoretically grounded in multiscale averaging theory. We show how task parallelism can be exploited to concurrently perform a variety of analysis tasks with data-dependent costs, including the generation of iso-surfaces, morphological analyses, and connected components analysis. All analyses are performed in parallel using distributed memory and use the same domain decomposition as the simulation. A task management framework is constructed to leverage available parallelism within a node for analysis. The capabilities of the framework are to launch asynchronous analysis threads, manage dependencies between different tasks, promote data locality and minimize the impact of data transfers. The framework is applied to analyze GPU-based simulations of two-fluid-phase flow in porous media, generating a set of averaged measures that represents the overall system behavior. We demonstrate how the approach can be applied to perform physically-consistent analysis over fluid sub-regions determined from connected components analysis. Simulations performed on Oak Ridge National Lab's Titan supercomputer are profiled to demonstrate the performance of the associated multi-threaded in situ analysis approach for typical production simulation of two-fluid-phase flow.

Computer Science↗

DOE OSTI2020

Two new SciDAC institutes promote mathematical tools and software technology for high-performance computing

Bigger is often said to be better, and the newest extreme-scale computers certainly are bigger, with millions of processing units. Moreover, the breadth of science performed on the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) computing facilities is expanding, with new technology such as artificial intelligence emerging. These advances are exciting, creating new opportunities for scientific discovery; however, they also raise new questions for scientists who want to exploit these advances for tackling more complex problems. Will my simulation code be able to utilize the accelerators in extreme-scale computing systems? Can I take advantage of the deepening memory hierarchy in heterogeneous processors? Is there a way around bottlenecks caused by the widening ratio of peak floating-point operations per second to I/0 bandwidth? How can I manage my huge amounts of data effectively? Can I analyze data in situ, or must I transfer it to offline storage for later analysis? To address such questions, DOE announced that it is providing $57.5 million over the next five years for two multidisciplinary teams — FASTMath and RAPIDS2 — to develop new tools and techniques to harness supercomputers for scientific discovery. The teams, called SciDAC Institutes, are part of the Scientific Discovery through Advanced Computing program.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2021

Science Federation Emulation Testbed: Demonstration of VFSIE Functionalities

The Virtual Federated Science Instrument Environment (VFSIE) is a digital twin of a federated infrastructure of multiple sites with science instruments and computing systems that are geographically dispersed. It emulates the federation using containers and virtual hosts (vhosts) connected over local and wide-area networks for the main purpose of supporting the development and testing of science workflows and software stacks, which will subsequently transition to the physical infrastructure. In this demo, we present VFSIE of a four sites scenario and illustrate the following use cases: (i) execution of federation stack components that expose resources to enable a science user to execute workflows, (ii) execution of remote control commands of beam-line instruments to collect measurements and position the sensor, and (iii) remote execution and access of Jupyter Notebook for tomographic image computations

Al Najjar, Anees↗

DOE OSTI2018

Evaluating and Optimizing OpenCL Base64 Data Unpacking Kernel with FPGA

Development of applications using OpenCL targeting FPGAs is an emerging approach on heterogeneous computing systems. This paper uses the data unpacking algorithm in Base64 encoding as a case study to present programming and optimization techniques, and experimental results of the OpenCL-based implementations on an FPGA. We explain the algorithm and evaluate the performance of the kernel implementations with Intel's FPGA OpenCL SDK. The experimental results show kernel vectorization and duplication are two optimization techniques that can improve the kernel performance. The performance of kernel duplication is also closely related to the local work size. Our experiment shows 16-lane vectorization increases the bandwidth by a factor of 2 to 10 for large input data sizes. Moreover, the performance of kernel duplication using 16 compute units is 40% to 1.5% less than that of kernel vectorization depending on the input size. Tuning the local work size can improve the kernel performance by a factor of 3 to 23. For this kernel, using local memory is not an effective technique to improve the kernel performance because input data is not reused. A combination of vectorization and duplication achieves the highest performance of 12.3 GiB/s. Compared to an Intel Xeon E5 CPU and an Nvidia Tesla K80 GPU, the performance of the kernel on the Arria 10 FPGA is 6.7X faster than the CPU and 3X slower than the GPU. The performance per watt on the FPGA is 20.5X higher than the CPU and 1.19X lower than the GPU.

Base64 Encoding↗

DOE OSTI2024

A Scalable Real-Time Data Assimilation Framework for Predicting Turbulent Atmosphere Dynamics

AI-based foundation models like FourCastNet, GraphCast are revolutionizing weather and climate predictions but are not yet ready for operational use. Their limitation lies in the absence of a data assimilation system to incorporate real-time Earth system observations, crucial for accurately forecasting events like tropical cyclones. To overcome these obstacles, we introduce a generic real-time data assimilation framework and demonstrate its end-to-end performance on the Frontier supercomputer. This framework comprises two primary modules: an ensemble score filter (EnSF), which significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art data assimilation method, and a vision transformer-based surrogate capable of real-time adaptation through the integration of observational data. We demonstrate both the strong and weak scaling of our framework up to 1024 GPUs on the Exascale supercomputer, Frontier. Our results not only illustrate the framework's exceptional scalability on high-performance computing systems, but also demonstrate the importance of supercomputers in real-time data assimilation for weather and climate predictions.

Lu, Dan↗

DOE OSTI2017

Program structure-based blocking

Embodiments relate to program structure-based blocking. An aspect includes receiving source code corresponding to a computer program by a compiler of a computer system. Another aspect includes determining a prefetching section in the source code by a marking module of the compiler. Yet another aspect includes performing, by a blocking module of the compiler, blocking of instructions located in the prefetching section into instruction blocks, such that the instruction blocks of the prefetching section only contain instructions that are located in the prefetching section.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2017

Program structure-based blocking

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2026

Feasibility Study on Implementing a Staggered-Grid Finite Volume Method for System Analysis Code Development Under the MOOSE Framework

Here, this work summarizes a feasibility study on testing numerical algorithms that are suitable and efficient for advanced system analysis code development under the mutli-physics framework, MOOSE. The key to the test bed is the implementation of high-order one-dimensional staggered-grid finite volume method (SG-FVM), and its direct interaction with the linear/nonlinear solver, PETSc. The test bed utilized a more flexible code structure to enable the finite volume method implementation and direct interacting with the solver package, instead of using the natively supported finite element method by the framework. Using a suite of selected test problems with different problem sizes and levels of complexity, the implemented SG-FVM demonstrated superior performance improvement against a direct finite element method implementation through MOOSE. On two computer systems, the speedup was observed to be significant, with at least one order of magnitude of solving time reduction. For a complex reactor model, transient simulation was performed using the newly developed finite volume method code, the results of which agree very well with the reference results from the finite element method code. Overall, this study demonstrates a successful feasibility study on the proposed numerical algorithms and software structure to support advanced system analysis tool development.

MOOSE↗

DOE OSTI2025

FY25 MOOSE Usability Improvements: 3D Meshing Capabilities, Initiation of Geometry Support for Monte Carlo Tools, and Enhancement of MOOSE/Workbench User Input Interactions

Usability improvements have been made to MOOSE and Workbench in FY25 to enhance usability and user workflows. Assorted enhancement have been made to MOOSE’s intrinsic meshing capabilities in order to enable more flexible and complex meshing of nuclear reactor systems, in particular for 3D applications. Mesh generators have been added to perform operations such as batch mesh generation, surface mesh generation, and creation of 3D transition layers. These mesh generation capabilities make it much easier to generate high quality non-extruded 3D meshes. Additionally, work to integrate Monte Carlo reactor physics simulations into MOOSE-based multi-physics workflows has reached another milestone with the implementation of the Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) base framework. This framework lays the foundation for mesh generators to offer the user a generic CSG output option (as opposed to a finite element mesh). To support users, workshop on the MOOSE Reactor Module was delivered which featured hands-on examples using the NEAMS Workbench on INL’s High Performance Computing system. Recent updates to the NEAMS Workbench, WASP, and the MOOSE language server have introduced several improvements aimed at making MOOSE-based simulation setup and input management faster, more accurate, and easier to use. Key capabilities that have been added include multi-tab-stop autocompletion, visual input diagnostics, developer-directed data visualizations, upgraded ParaView integration, and Workspace-level file tracking. Together, these changes make it easier for users to build, validate, and manage complex MOOSE-based simulation models — especially those involving reusable components, included files, and datasets. The improvements are designed to save time, reduce input errors, and help users get to a successful simulation run faster, with more confidence in the results.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗