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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 685 records · Page 38
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

BISON analyses of TRISO fuel performance, its dependence on time-at-temperature, and possible implications for fuel design and qualification

The Advanced Gas Reactor Fuel Development and Qualification (AGR) program has established a substantial technical foundation to support private entry into the U.S. high-temperature gas-cooled reactor market. However, emerging tristructural isotropic (TRISO)-fueled reactor applications include small modular reactors and microreactors with longer fuel residence times, which may expose fuels to higher time-at-temperature (TAT) values than were explored by the AGR program. Increased TAT could affect diffusive and thermomechanical behaviors such as Pd penetration, fission gas release, creep, and fission product transport. In this work, we applied multiscale best-estimate BISON fuel performance modeling to assess these effects within a representative design space based on the AGR-5/6/7 experiment and analyzed trends in predicted particle and compact fuel performance metrics with possible implications for near-term fuel design and qualification. BISON unambiguously predicted that TRISO fuel performance is sensitive to TAT. Increasing TAT was not predicted to increase the magnitude of failure-inducing tangential stresses in particle coating layers. Predictions obtained using a mechanistic model for Pd penetration indicated that penetration depth does not depend strongly on TAT. While these observations suggest that AGR testing provides a conservative upper bound for the steady-state operation of TRISO particles at lower powers and higher residence times, BISON also predicted that the release of poorly retained Ag would increase with TAT. Because these analyses applied models to extrapolate beyond the available experimental data, the authors recommend performing targeted experiments to confirm these predictions. Nevertheless, these predictions may provide reactor developers with enough confidence to make near-term design decisions associated with the potential fuel performance trade-offs of increasing TAT.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2020

What fuel properties enable higher thermal efficiency in spark-ignited engines?

The Co-Optimization of Fuels and Engines (Co-Optima) initiative from the US Department of Energy aims to co-develop fuels and engines in an effort to maximize energy efficiency and the utilization of renewable fuels. Many of these renewable fuel options have fuel chemistries that are different from those of petroleum-derived fuels. Because practical market fuels need to meet specific fuel-property requirements, a chemistry-agnostic approach to assessing the potential benefits of candidate fuels was developed using the Central Fuel Property Hypothesis (CFPH). The CFPH states that fuel properties are predictive of the performance of the fuel, regardless of the fuel's chemical composition. In order to use this hypothesis to assess the potential of fuel candidates to increase efficiency in spark-ignition (SI) engines, the individual contributions towards efficiency potential in an optimized engine must be quantified in a way that allows the individual fuel properties to be traded off for one another. This review article begins by providing an overview of the historical linkages between fuel properties and engine efficiency, including the two dominant pathways currently being used by vehicle manufacturers to reduce fuel consumption. Then, a thermodynamic-based assessment to quantify how six individual fuel properties can affect efficiency in SI engines is performed: research octane number, octane sensitivity, latent heat of vaporization, laminar flame speed, particulate matter index, and catalyst light-off temperature. The relative effects of each of these fuel properties is combined into a unified merit function that is capable of assessing the fuel property-based efficiency potential of fuels with conventional and unconventional compositions.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Towards real-time forecasting of natural gas production by harnessing graph theory for stochastic discrete fracture networks

In this work, we compare hydrocarbon production curves obtained from a graph-based reduced-order model with the high-fidelity Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) predictions for a fracture network created using data from a real shale site. We observe that the bounds for the high fidelity DFN model lie within the bounds for the reduced order model, implying that the reduced-order model provides a conservative estimate. Moreover, we found that except for first-passage times and late arriving mass, the production curves from the reduced-order model predict transport accurately. However, it is to be noted that the results are inspite of trading a three-dimensional geometry for a reduced system in the form of a graph, one that is 500–1000 times faster in terms of computational efficiency (for this particular application). In addition, we also compare the production curves for large drawdown and small drawdown using our graph approach. The reduced-order model is successful in showing that the long term productivity is higher in case of small drawdown although the initial productivity is higher for large drawdown. Thus, this reduced-order model offers great potential in uncertainty quantification for production, as well as in providing operators with information to make real-time decisions for optimal production.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2020

A long short-term memory embedding for hybrid uplifted reduced order models

In this paper, we introduce an uplifted reduced order modeling (UROM) approach through the integration of standard projection based methods with long short-term memory (LSTM) embedding. Our approach has three modeling layers or components. In the first layer, we utilize an intrusive projection approach to model dynamics represented by the largest modes. The second layer consists of an LSTM model to account for residuals beyond this truncation. This closure layer refers to the process of including the residual effect of the discarded modes into the dynamics of the largest scales. However, the feasibility of generating a low rank approximation tails off for higher Kolmogorov n -width systems due to the underlying nonlinear processes. The third uplifting layer, called super-resolution, addresses this limited representation issue by expanding the span into a larger number of modes utilizing the versatility of LSTM. Therefore, our model integrates a physics-based projection model with a memory embedded LSTM closure and an LSTM based super-resolution model. In several applications, we exploit the use of Grassmann manifold to construct UROM for unseen conditions. We performed numerical experiments by using the Burgers and Navier-Stokes equations with quadratic nonlinearity. Finally, our results show robustness of the proposed approach in building reduced order models for parameterized systems and confirm the improved trade-off between accuracy and efficiency.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enriching the physics program of the CMS experiment via data scouting and data parking

Specialized data-taking and data-processing techniques were introduced by the CMS experiment in Run 1 of the CERN LHC to enhance the sensitivity of searches for new physics and the precision of standard model measurements. These techniques, termed data scouting and data parking, extend the data-taking capabilities of CMS beyond the original design specifications. The novel data-scouting strategy trades complete event information for higher event rates, while keeping the data bandwidth within limits. Data parking involves storing a large amount of raw detector data collected by algorithms with low trigger thresholds to be processed when sufficient computational power is available to handle such data. The research program of the CMS Collaboration is greatly expanded with these techniques. The implementation, performance, and physics results obtained with data scouting and data parking in CMS over the last decade are discussed in this Report, along with new developments aimed at further improving low-mass physics sensitivity over the next years of data taking.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Understanding the ignition process and flame structure of conventional and oxygenated fuels under engine relevant conditions – An optical study

Renewably generated synthetic fuels such as poly-oxymethylene ethers (OME) have a significant potential to effectively break the soot-NOX trade-off in compression ignition engines by using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) to maintain low nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions while maintaining good efficiency and simultaneously contributing to circular carbon economy. However, owing to the fundamental differences in properties of OME when compared to fossil-based diesel fuels, it is critical to fully understand its ignition and combustion phenomenology to take advantage of this fuel to its utmost potential. In this context, this work outlines the results of a systematic experimental study performed in a heavy-duty, single-cylinder, optical engine probing the spatial and temporal progression of fuel decomposition and ignition behavior of OME when compared to n-dodecane, a diesel-fuel surrogate. Thermodynamic analysis and optical diagnostics techniques including simultaneous HCHO-PLIF and OH-PLIF complemented by high-speed OH* chemiluminescence were employed along with parametric sweeps of intake temperature and EGR dilution rates. OME does not exhibit any observable low temperature heat release irrespective of the ambient oxygen concentration. Differences in the observed diffusive flame structure such as longer flame lift-off length, less pronounced combustion recession, faster premixed burn at ignition (“volumetric” ignition), non-sooting behavior suggest that the inherent presence of fuel-bound oxygen in OME can skew the air-fuel ratio (AFR) distribution within the jet thereby reducing the reliance of combustion on mixing and air entrainment. This leads to rapid late-cycle oxidation leading to shorter combustion duration and favorable combustion phasing. Results also suggest that OME exhibits relatively weak negative temperature coefficient (NTC) behavior, however, the OME fuel-decomposition kinetic-pathways produce significant concentration of HCHO, which might be erroneously interpreted as a product of cool-flames.

Air-fuel ratio↗
DOE OSTI2024

Advancing environmental assessment of the circular economy: Challenges and opportunities

The lifecycle assessment (LCA) framework is widely applied to comprehensively evaluate and improve the environmental performance of a circular economy (CE). The advances and application of LCA has been primarily restricted to evaluate the environmental performance of the CE at a micro-level, wherein the CE is implemented for a single product system. However, the CE can be operationalized at two broader levels: the meso–level (for eco-industrial parks) and the macro-level (for a city, state, or nation). Six methodological challenges emerge when applying LCA to a meso- or macro-level CE and remain unaddressed in the existing literature. This includes: selecting a relevant system boundary and functional unit, addressing data paucity and uncertainty, accounting for stakeholder behavior, assessing the trade-offs from renewable energy (RE) use, accounting for manufacturing and technology evolution, and quantifying displacement and rebound. This article proposes potential solutions and research priorities to address the above challenges.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2020

A systems engineering vision for floating offshore wind cost optimization

The U.S. offshore wind resource potential is immense, and often in close proximity to densely-populated coastal load centers. In many U.S. coastal areas, water depths favor the deployment of floating over fixed-bottom offshore wind technology. Floating offshore wind plants have the potential to be cost-competitive with fixed-bottom installations, but because the technology has not yet been deployed at commercial scale, it is not clear when and with what configurations this potential cost parity can be achieved. This article first reviews the state of floating offshore wind technology and deployments to identify key gaps that must be addressed to bring down the overall cost of energy produced. The article then puts forth a long-term vision for a research program and design methodology that may be able to push floating wind plants toward a lower levelized cost of energy than fixed-bottom offshore wind. The method involves a fully integrated systems-engineering and techno-economic design approach to capture the complex interactions between the physics, manufacturing, installation, and operation of floating wind turbines to achieve transformational cost reductions. The approach also envisions multifidelity and uncertainty management strategies to examine the most robust and viable concepts in the design trade-space. To better focus the computational resources, engineering lessons learned from existing offshore wind systems and concept studies are used to develop a set of criteria that can be applied to prefilter candidate technology building blocks that have the greatest cost reduction potential.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Numerical wave modeling for operational and survival analyses of wave energy converters at the US Navy Wave Energy Test Site in Hawaii

The US Navy Wave Energy Test Site (WETS) is currently operating three grid-connected berths off Marine Corps Base Hawaii in support of technological development through scaled-model testing and pre-commercial prototyping. The location on the east shore of Oahu is open to year-round wind waves and seasonal north swells as well as severe seas from subtropical systems and hurricanes. We have assembled a spectral wave model system comprising WAVEWATCH III and SWAN on a hierarchy of global, regional, and nearshore computational grids. With wind forcing from global forecast and rean-alysis datasets as well as their regional downscaling, the system produces operational 7-day wave forecasts and a long-term hindcast. The daily forecasts, validated with real-time buoy measurements, facilitate safe deployment, operation, and retrieval of wave energy converters (WECs). The wave hindcast from 1979 to 2017 defines the intra- and inter-annual variations for statistical analysis of sea states and energy resources. Due to limited occurrences of hurricanes in Hawaii waters, their wind forcing is determined parametrically with simulated tracks from climate model downscaling. Finally, systematic analysis of the hindcast and simulation datasets provides significant wave heights from trade winds, swells, subtropical systems, and hurricanes with return periods up to 100 years for WECs survival analysis.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2023

Wave climate and energy resources in the Mariana Islands from a 42-year high-resolution hindcast

We report a high-resolution wave hindcast from 1979 to 2020 was developed for Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, which are influenced by mesoscale and synoptic weather systems from the western Pacific Rim to the Central Pacific. The spectral wave modeling utilized structured global and unstructured regional grids with improved resolution in nearshore waters, where wave resources development is most feasible. The hindcast demonstrates its capability in capturing multi-modal seas through reproduction of bulk and partitioned wave parameters derived from altimetry and buoy measurements. The local wave climate is influenced by the year-round trade winds and tropical cyclones as well as seasonal monsoons, frontal systems, and mid-latitude high- and low-pressure systems. The strong intra-annual variation of the significant wave height and power flux reflects transitions between local and distant weather systems, which account for the diverse wave conditions comprised of short-period wind waves, intermediate-period seas, and long-period swells around the islands. Among the Pacific island regions, spectral partitioning is particularly important for describing the dominant wave components by period and direction with pertinent information conducive to energy resources characterization and coastal zone management in the Mariana Islands.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2023

A comparison of the power potential for surface- and seabed-deployed tidal turbines in the San Juan Archipelago, Salish Sea, WA

The San Juan archipelago lies along the axis of tidal movement between Straits of Juan de Fuca and Strait of Georgia in the Salish Sea. The amplitude of the tidal exchange produces significant tidal currents between the islands, as well as in Rosario and Haro Straits. These are of interest as a future source of electrical power generation, given the islands’ dependence on electricity supply by a subsea cable from the mainland. Here, we evaluate the tidal current energy potential in this region through a re-analysis of measurements collected by the National Ocean Service (NOS) and a high-resolution numerical model. Given the considerable variations in water depth and vertical velocity profiles across candidate tidal energy sites, we consider the trade-offs between tidal turbines deployed from a floating platform and those anchored to the seabed. Measurement re-analysis indicates several locations that could support tidal current power generation by MW-scale turbines with an acceptable balance between turbine size, rated power, and capacity factor. Even for relatively large (30 m) turbine diameters, surface-deployed turbines would be expected to produce up to 30 % more electricity than the same turbine deployed near the seabed due to vertical shear, with this difference increasing for smaller diameter turbines. A benchmark comparison at the measurement locations with the highest power generation potential shows relatively good model fidelity, though, even with relatively high resolution, time-average power density disagreements of ± 50 % persist throughout the water column. Nonetheless, the simulation identifies several locations with power generation potential more than twice as high as locations in the measurement re-analysis. These sites were either not surveyed by NOS or excluded due to data quality issues. Altogether, these results demonstrate the complimentary of models and measurements for tidal energy site assessment and suggest that tidal currents could be an important source of electricity generation in the San Juan archipelago.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2025

Valued peaks: Sustainable water allocation for small hydropower plants in an era of explicit ecological needs

Optimizing hydropower operations to balance economic profitability and support functioning ecosystem services is integral to river management policy. In this article, we propose a dynamic, constrained optimization framework for small hydropower plants (SHPs) to evaluate trade-offs between economic profitability and socio-ecological requirements. Specifically, we examine the balance between short-term losses in hydropower generation and the potential for compensatory benefits in the form of revenue from recreational ecosystem services, irrespective of the direct beneficiary. Our framework integrates a fish habitat model, a hydropower optimization model, and a recreational ecosystem service estimate to evaluate different environmental flow scenarios. The optimization process gives three outflow release scenarios, informed by previous streamflow realisations (dam inflow), and designed environmental flow constraints. The framework is applied and tested for the river Kuusinkijoki in North-eastern Finland, which is a habitat for migratory brown trout and grayling populations. We show that the revenue loss due to the environmental flow constraints arises through a reduction in revenue per generated energy unit and through a reduction in turbine efficiency. Additionally, the simulation results reveal that all the designed environmental flow constraints cannot be met simultaneously. Under the environmental flow scenario with both minimum flow and flow ramping rate constraints, the annual hydropower revenue decreases by 16.5 %. An annual increase of 8 % in recreational fishing visits offsets the revenue loss. In conclusion, the developed framework provides knowledge of the costs and benefits of hydropower environmental flow constraints and guides the prioritizing process of environmental measures.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

United States plastics: Large flows, short lifetimes, and negligible recycling

Given increasing concerns for the marine environment and human health, as well as trade restrictions from Asian countries, plastics have become a great challenge for the United States. This study addresses the seven commonly used plastics: low-density polyethylene/linear low-density polyethylene, high-density polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and other plastics. Material flows of the seven polymers were tracked from production into fabrication, manufacturing, flow into use, waste management, and recycling in the United States in 2015. Low- and high-density polyethylene and polypropylene were found to be the largest in both production and product manufacture. More than 88% of the plastics went into three end-use sectors: Packaging, Consumer and Institutional Products, and Building and Construction. In-use lifetimes across the plastics are generally short. Virgin plastics were mainly exported, while intermediate plastic products were largely imported. The actual end-of-life recycling rate of the plastics as a group was no more than 6.2%, with PET and the polyethylene family the most recycled. Here, the high yearly plastic throughput and low recycling rate pose a serious challenge to the sustainability goals of the United States and is in stark contrast to the vision of a circular economy of plastics.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2023

Potential impacts of Fukushima nuclear wastewater discharge on nutrient supply and greenhouse gas emissions of food systems

Seafood plays a critical role in promoting a nutritious and climate-friendly food system but faces challenges from marine contamination that pose food safety risks. Here, to address these challenges, we developed a Marine Pollution-induced Food System Risk Assessment and Response (MP-FSRAR) model to assess the impact of consumer perceptions of marine pollution risk events on nutrient supply and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Applying this model to the proposed Fukushima Nuclear Wastewater Discharge (FNWD) into the Pacific Ocean, we identified the potential variation in nutrient supply and GHG emissions resulting from changes in Chinese consumers' willingness to consume seafood under 12 scenarios. Our analysis revealed nutrient supply gaps in daily protein, minerals, vitamins, and fatty acids, ranging from 1.5 to 2.7 g/person, 2.5–4.5 mg/person, 5.6–10.3 mcg/person, and 0.08–0.14 g/person, respectively. Closing the protein gap in China would require an additional 3.2–15.8 billion kg yr -1 protein-rich foods, including aquatic, livestock, dairy, and pulses. Additional food supply would increase extra GHG emissions by 1–79 billion kg CO 2 e yr -1 , resulting in potential GHG emissions being transmitted to other countries through the trade chain. Furthermore, we found that the livestock-based food substitution pathway had 40 times higher GHG emissions than the plant-based one. Our MP-FSRAR model provides global stakeholders with new perspectives on the potential consequences of consumer perceptions of marine pollution risks and offers valuable insights for developing countermeasures to build a more resilient and low-carbon food system.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2023

Techno-economic analysis of the water, energy, and greenhouse gas emissions impacts from the adoption of water efficiency practices in the U.S. manufacturing sector

Water is a critical resource for all of manufacturing. As such, mitigating risks to the supply of water to manufacturing plants facilitates maintaining a vital manufacturing sector. Reductions in water use through water efficiency is one method for mitigating risk, however little is known about its potential in the United States (U.S.) manufacturing sector. Herein, we address this gap and calculate the water reduction potential in U.S. manufacturing from commercially available water efficiency opportunities specific to the manufacturing sector. A list of water efficiency measures specific to the manufacturing sector is compiled and applied to estimates of U.S. manufacturing water withdrawals. The energy and carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e) emission impacts from implementation of these measures are also quantified to better inform the resource, environmental, and economic trade-offs from implementation of these measures. We find that the water savings potential from the evaluated measures is up to 60 percent of U.S. manufacturing water withdrawal for certain subsectors, with the energy and emissions impact dependent on the measure. Further, we calculate the levelized cost of conserved water for several water efficiency measures (-$\$4,000$ to $\$85$/thousand m 3 , where negative values indicate net cost savings and positive values indicate net cost expenditures) and compare them to the levelized cost of alternative water sources ($\$600$ to $\$3,400$/thousand m 3 ). The results show significant opportunities for water and energy use reductions at levelized costs at least one order of magnitude lower than alternative water supplies, with some being revenue-generating.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2025

Accounting for Sustainability and Performance: Contrasting Effects of PET-Derived Modifiers on Asphalt Durability

The valorization of waste plastics in roadway infrastructure requires careful balance between sustainability and performance, as ineffective modifiers may incur both environmental and financial costs. This study shows that two modifiers derived from the same waste plastic source (PET)-DOTP (N1,N4-(dioctyl)terephthalamide) and HETP (N1,N4-Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalamide)-exhibit opposite effects on asphalt properties, despite having nearly the same carbon footprint. DOTP improves elastic recovery in multiple creep recovery tests (MCRT), while HETP increases strain accumulation and reduces elasticity. Density functional theory (DFT) shows that DOTP's molecular structure can disperse well in bitumen mixtures by binding to both polar and non-polar components. In contrast, HETP binds only to the binder's polar sites, lacking adequate dispersion. This increases the risk of aggregation of polar compounds in the bitumen mixture, resulting in a more deformation-prone binder. A techno-economic analysis highlights trade-offs between sustainability and performance in industrial-scale synthesis. This study advocates for applying first-principles thinking in material design, coupled with experimental validation, to engineer plastic waste-derived additives that achieve both performance and sustainability goals.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Multiscale assessment of land surface phenology from harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2, PlanetScope, and PhenoCam imagery

As the spatial and temporal resolution of remotely sensed imagery has improved over the last four decades, algorithms for monitoring and mapping seasonal changes in surface properties have evolved rapidly. Most recently, the availability of daily PlanetScope imagery has created new opportunities for monitoring the land surface phenology (LSP) of terrestrial ecosystems at high spatial resolution. However, the quality and value of LSP information from PlanetScope imagery have not been systematically examined. In this paper, we evaluate the character and quality of LSP information derived from PlanetScope by comparing time series of vegetation indices and LSP metrics from PlanetScope to corresponding time series and LSP metrics derived from Harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 (HLS) imagery and PhenoCams at six sites that span a diverse range of land cover types and climate. Results show that vegetation index time series from all three data sources show high temporal correlation, and LSP metrics derived from HLS, PlanetScope, and PhenoCam show high agreement with negligible bias. Semi-variograms for phenometrics estimated from PlanetScope imagery indicate that the majority of spatial variance captured in PlanetScope phenometrics occurs well below the spatial resolution HLS imagery. At the same time, LSP metrics from HLS are most strongly correlated with the 50–75% quantiles of 3 m LSP metrics from PlanetScope. This indicates that HLS captures the average phenology at sub-pixel scale captured in PlanetScope imagery. Here, our results represent the first comprehensive comparison of LSP metrics estimated from PlanetScope and publicly available moderate spatial resolution imagery, and provide insights regarding: (1) the quality and character of LSP metrics derived from HLS and PlanetScope; and (2) the relative merits and trade-offs associated with the use of each data source for LSP studies.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Greenhouse gas emission reduction and cost from the United States biofuels mandate

The United States biofuel mandate might be the largest operating program to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Our paper uses regulatory information about abatement and compliance cost estimates to measure the greenhouse gas abatement cost curve of the mandate. Historical compliance costs per unit of biofuel appear readily available, yet findings here show that using these data along with observed biofuel quantities biases biofuel mandate abatement cost estimates upward. Unbiased estimation requires that related biofuel mandate costs and emissions are estimated along with associated market effects, including on fuel use, using an economic model. Moreover, this approach relates greenhouse gas abatement to the implications for crop prices and land use, taking account of interactions within the crop sector. Results show that the United States biofuel mandate causes up to 20 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent abatement for compliance costs that are equivalent to carbon prices ranging up to $20 per ton, with a large part coming from reductions in petroleum product use as the mandate encourages substitution to biofuels. Abatement costs are reduced if ethanol is made at new facilities with fewer emissions or if petroleum output expansion causes greater emissions than the historical average. Results also indicate that GHG abatement via the mandate is initially costly due to the nature of biofuel demand, there can be a trade-off between corn price increase and GHG reduction, and the increase in total area planted to crops in the U.S. is less important than the reallocation of land among crops.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗