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DOE OSTI2023

Industry Facing PV Degradation Prediction Tool and Database to Enable a 50-Year Life Module

The Photovoltaic (PV) industry constantly aims for lower costs, higher-efficiency cells, and improved module designs. These trends lead to using new materials, designs, and manufacturing processes, resulting in a continually changing technological landscape. These changes can potentially introduce new, unknown degradation mechanisms and failure modes that are difficult to diagnose, analyze, test, and model. This introduces uncertainty into the expected lifetime of PV modules of 25 years. Furthermore, research efforts aim for up to 50 years of service life while keeping performance degradation at a minimum for decades of outdoor weathering - putting additional pressure on improving the accuracy of long-term durability and reliability assessments. Here there is a need to organize the existing degradation data into an accessible format and to provide industry relevant tools for extrapolation from laboratory to field conditions. Because the core of this type of analysis involves calculations that are complicated but ubiquitous for many degradation processes, an enhanced predictive modeling framework will facilitate the analysis to help researchers keep up with the rapid pace of technological changes. In this work, we present an online tool that can be used to search for and analyze degradation information and extrapolate PV module performance and durability to field exposure. A graphical user interface will aid in the understanding of the results. The prediction tool will be built modular and published as open source, enabling users to expand on the existing framework. We use an integration pipeline approach that allows us to leverage weather data from the National Solar Radiation Database to perform geospatial degradation analysis in the US and worldwide. Our repository will contain various degradation models and material parameters suitable for the reliability and durability assessment of materials and components deployed outdoors. We hope to become a repository that can be used for weathering and degradation analysis for various applications beyond the PV industry.

degradation↗

DOE OSTI2023

Rear-Side Irradiance Simulation of Field PV Modules

Assessing the durability of photovoltaic (PV) module backsheet is critical to increasing module lifetime. Historically, laboratory-based accelerated testing has insufficient in predicting large-scale failures of commercial polymeric materials. Additionally, there is growing concern that standard condition tests do not reflect non-uniformities in field exposure, and that certain modules experience more severe degradation due to their location. Anisotropy in field exposures is installation-dependent and reflects different levels of exposure to irradiance due to mounting geometry, ground surface albedo, and climatic zone. "Bificial_Radiance" [1], simulates the amount of reflected irradiance on the Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) backsheet of a PV array located in Maryland. In our work, site specific weather data are gathered for the entire length of exposure for the modules. The total full-spectrum dose for the incident irradiance on the backsheet was then determined. The simulation results are integrated with historical field survey data to better understand real orld outdoor degradation.

backsheet↗

DOE OSTI2014

User's Manual for Data for Validating Models for PV Module Performance

This user's manual describes performance data measured for flat-plate photovoltaic (PV) modules installed in Cocoa, Florida, Eugene, Oregon, and Golden, Colorado. The data include PV module current-voltage curves and associated meteorological data for approximately one-year periods. These publicly available data are intended to facilitate the validation of existing models for predicting the performance of PV modules, and for the development of new and improved models. For comparing different modeling approaches, using these public data will provide transparency and more meaningful comparisons of the relative benefits.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2015

Module-Integrated Power Converters Based on Universal Dock

Solar power installations using alternating current photovoltaic (ACPV) modules have significant cost and performance advantages over systems using conventional solar modules and string inverters. ACPV modules have improved energy harvest due to module-level power point tracking and redundancy. More importantly, ACPV modules are easier and cheaper to install, lowering the total installed cost, indirect costs, and barriers to market entry. Furthermore, ACPV modules have communications and data logging capability, yielding module-level telemetry data that is useful in site diagnostics and other data applications. The products of these efforts were threefold. First, an advanced microinverter power topology was developed, modeled, simulated, and tested. Second, new microinverter enclosure concepts were developed and tested. Third, a new ACPV module prototype was constructed, combining the power topology and the enclosure concepts. SolarBridge filed for patents in each of these areas and is transitioning the project from a concept phase to full development.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

NASA NTRS1990

Improved Photovoltaic-Driven Quantum Light Modulator

Additional features increase sensitivity and utility. Modifications proposed to improve device described in "Photovoltaic-Driven Multiple-Quantum-Well Modulator" (NPO-16914) and "Strain-Layer-Superlattice Light Modulator" (NPO-16915). Resembles prior devices of this general type but includes active region using quantum state filling and more optimum structure. Exploits quantum well equivalent of Moss-Burnstein shift.

Maserjian, Joseph↗

DOE OSTI2026

Feasibility of Passive MOSFET Paralleling for Photovoltaic Current-Voltage Curves

Current-voltage curves are an important method of characterizing Photovoltaic (PV) Modules. NREL has developed several low-cost MOSFET-based devices that can characterize PV cells and modules. The size of PV modules that can be measured is limited by the power limitations of a single MOSFET. By using multiple MOSFET devices, each can operate at a lower current, paralleled on resistance is also decreased allowing for higher power loads. Operating multiple devices in parallel can cause an imbalance in current, thus causing some devices to conduct more, pushing them into a thermal runaway condition. To investigate this, an active feedback circuit was tested with paralleled devices using a PV module load. The efficacy, limitations, and design considerations of using parallel MOSFET loads for PV characterization are explored. This work is not new, but the implementation of a paralleled architecture in a low cost characterization tool is novel.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

System for evaluating hardware

A system for evaluating a power electronics module, such as a photovoltaic (PV) module or an energy-storage system (ESS) module, is provided. The power electronics module may form a component of a multiport autonomous reconfigurable solar (MARS) power plant, which may include a plurality of phase-legs each including an upper arm and the lower arm.

Marti, Shilpa↗

DOE OSTI2023

DuraMAT Technology Scouting Report: Assessing Module Reliability Risks Associated with Projected Technological Changes

Maintaining the reliability of photovoltaic (PV) modules in the face of rapidly changing technology is critical to maximizing solar energy's contribution to global decarbonization. Our presentation describes expected changes in PV technology and their impacts on performance and reliability. We leverage PV market reports, interviews with PV researchers and other industry stakeholders, and peer-reviewed literature to narrow the multitude of possible changes into a manageable set of 11 impactful trends likely to be incorporated in near-term crystalline-silicon module designs. We group the trends into four categories (module architecture, interconnect technologies, bifacial modules, and cell technology) and explore the drivers behind the changes, their interactions, and associated reliability risks and benefits. Our analysis identifies specific areas that would benefit from accelerating the PV reliability learning cycle, to assess emerging module products and designs more accurately. We recommend that researchers continue tracking module technologies and their reliability implications so efforts can be focused on the most impactful trends. As the rapid technological turnover continues, it is also critical to incorporate fundamental knowledge into models that can predict module reliability. Predictive capabilities complete the PV reliability learning cycle-reducing the time required to assess new designs and mitigating the risks associated with large-scale deployment of new products.

bifacial↗

DOE OSTI2023

Rear-Side Irradiance Simulation of Field PV Modules: Preprint

Assessing the durability of photovoltaic (PV) module backsheet is critical to increasing module lifetime. Historically, laboratory-based accelerated testing has insufficient in predicting large-scale failures of commercial polymeric materials. Additionally, there is growing concern that standard condition tests do not reflect non-uniformities in field exposure, and that certain modules experience more severe degradation due to their location. Anisotropy in field exposures is installation dependent and reflects different levels of exposure to irradiance due to mounting geometry, ground surface albedo, and climatic zone. "Bificial Radiance" [1], simulates the amount of reflected irradiance on the Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) backsheet of a PV array located in Maryland. In our work, site specific weather data are gathered for the entire length of exposure for the modules. The total full-spectrum dose for the incident irradiance on the backsheet was then determined. The simulation results are integrated with historical field survey data to better understand realworld outdoor degradation.

backsheet↗

DOE OSTI2016

Fundamental Studies of Adhesion of Dust to PV Module Surfaces: Chemical and Physical Relationships at the Microscale

Photovoltaic (PV) module soiling is a growing area of concern for performance and reliability. This paper provides evaluations of the fundamental interactions of dust/soiling particles with several PV module surfaces. The purpose is to investigate the basic mechanisms involving the chemistry, morphology, and resulting particle adhesion to the first photon-incident surface. The evaluation and mapping of the chemistry and composition of single dust particles collected from operating PV module surfaces are presented. The first correlated direct measurements of the adhesive force of individual grains from field-operating collectors on identical PV module glass are reported, including correlations with specific compositions. Special microscale atomic force microscopy techniques are adapted to determine the force between the particle and the module glass surface. Results are presented for samples under dry and moisture-exposed conditions, confirming the effects of cementation for surfaces having soluble mineral and/or organic concentrations. Additionally, the effects of hydrocarbon fuels on the enhanced bonding of soiling particles to surfaces are determined for samples from urban and highly trafficked regions. Comparisons between glass and dust-mitigating superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic coatings are presented. Potential limitations of this proximal probe technique are discussed in terms of results and initial proof-of-concept experiments.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2026

DuraMAT FY24 Annual Report: Five Results to Help America's Photovoltaic Industry

The Durable Module Materials Consortium's overarching goal is to understand photovoltaic (PV) module degradation and enable high-energy-yield modules with a 50-year lifespan. One of DuraMAT's milestones this year was to identify cases where the whole of DuraMAT really mattered and made an impact that was greater than the sum of the project results. We identified five key results that demonstrate progress toward enabling 50-year modules for a resilient PV industry: 1) Resilient PV Systems; 2) Proactive Materials Screening; 3) Understanding Wear-Out; 4) Identifying Which Cracks Matter; and 5) Software Tools and Data Resources This annual report summarizes these key results, as well as reviewing our other ongoing work in fiscal year 2024.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2015

Photovoltaic power generation system free of bypass diodes

A photovoltaic power generation system that includes a solar panel that is free of bypass diodes is described herein. The solar panel includes a plurality of photovoltaic sub-modules, wherein at least two of photovoltaic sub-modules in the plurality of photovoltaic sub-modules are electrically connected in parallel. A photovoltaic sub-module includes a plurality of groups of electrically connected photovoltaic cells, wherein at least two of the groups are electrically connected in series. A photovoltaic group includes a plurality of strings of photovoltaic cells, wherein a string of photovoltaic cells comprises a plurality of photovoltaic cells electrically connected in series. The strings of photovoltaic cells are electrically connected in parallel, and the photovoltaic cells are microsystem-enabled photovoltaic cells.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Diagonal Shadows Could Cause Arcs in Thin-Film Modules With P4 Scribes

Thin-film photovoltaic (PV) modules are often made using monolithic integration (MLI), regardless of absorber technology. MLI modules sometimes use a fourth pattern of scribe lines, P4, to divide modules into parallel substrings of cells. We simulated diagonal shadows in such modules and show that they cause a voltage difference across P4. This voltage can be enough to cause an arc across P4. An arc inside a PV module can cause burned polymers and broken glass. Such packaging failures create a risk of fire or electric shock in any PV module. These hazards go beyond the permanent loss of efficiency that vertical shadows can cause. Here, we propose several solutions to this potential problem.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Standards development for modules in high temperature micro-environments

Photovoltaic (PV) module qualification standards, IEC 61215 and IEC 61730, were designed to apply to “general open-air climates” and IEC 61730 specifically indicated applicability of ambient air temperature of 40°C. Additionally, these standards provided allowances for so-called “open rack mounted PV modules” without a clear definition of “open-rack.” These implied restrictions and allowances meant that hotter climates or thermally restrictive installation methods may not be covered by these often customer-mandated certification standards. This is particularly salient for the significant growth regions of the Middle East and India that would be expected to operate at significantly higher temperatures. The applicability of these documents raised issues over the definition of “open rack” and the fact that the geographic location is just as important as the mounting configuration in assessing the impact of the micro-environment of a PV module. This work summarizes the scientific background for IEC Technical Specification 63126:2020 ED1, titled “Guidelines for qualifying PV modules components and materials for operation at high temperatures.” This standard was recently published by the IEC and is the first step in a systematic effort to rework these standards to address the question of temperature more directly. Instead of specifying a mounting condition, we specify different suites of tests suitable for a system (PV module, mounting style, and location) defined by the 98th percentile cell temperature. With a defined temperature regime to work from, this allowed us to use existing literature research combined with additional modeling work to determine, which tests would need to be modified. This resulted in suggested changes to material thermal indices, thermal cycling temperatures, hot spot testing, ultraviolet testing, and bypass diode testing among other tests and characteristics described in this study.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

A Custom High-Throughput Optical Mapping Instrument for Accelerated Stress Testing of PV Module Materials

The performance and integrity of photovoltaic (PV) modules and materials may be assessed through optical characterizations. We have developed a custom optical mapping instrument (OMI) to improve measurement throughput time, facilitate automated measurements, allow for localized specimen examination, obtain spatial information relative to commercial benchtop spectrophotometer instruments, and provide automated data analysis. Both the key components and the methods used to improve the measurements are described. The measurement precision for the OMI is benchmarked for hemispherical transmittance relative to a previous round-robin study for commercial spectrophotometers. In addition to the unique instrument developed in this study, new insights have emerged from the examination of specimens from previous experiments, including: the depletion of the UV absorber is revealed for specimens beyond a certain size after artificial ultraviolet (UV) weathering; an optical degradation by internal haze formation is confirmed following Damp Heat (85 °C/85% relative humidity) testing; the better uniformity of the wear pattern for falling sand abrasion is used to select the DIN 52348 fixture over the ASTM D968 fixture; and the greater local (in the order of millimeters) heterogeneity of surface contamination in the soiling-prone location of Dubai relative to Kuwait. The results of the UV study have already been used to improve the standardized weathering of encapsulants. The example for Damp Heat testing is given to increase awareness of a degradation believed to be ubiquitously occurring in safety and design-type qualification testing of PV modules.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

A Custom High-Throughput Optical Mapping Instrument (OMI) for Accelerated Stress Testing of PV Module Materials

The performance and integrity of photovoltaic (PV) modules and materials may be assessed through optical characterizations. We have developed a custom Optical Mapping Instrument (OMI) to improve measurement throughput time, facilitate automated measurements, and obtain spatial information relative to commercial benchtop spectrophotometer instruments. Both the key components and the methods used to improve the measurements are described. The measurement precision for the OMI is benchmarked for hemispherical transmittance relative to a previous round-robin study for commercial spectrophotometers. Example mapping measurements and their implications are given for specimens from other studies, including: (1) the depletion of the UV absorber is revealed for specimens beyond a certain size after standardized artificial ultraviolet (UV) weathering, (2) an optical degradation by internal haze formation is confirmed following Damp Heat (85°C/85% relative humidity) testing, (3) the better uniformity of the wear pattern for falling sand abrasion is used to select the DIN 52348 fixture over the ASTM D968 fixture, and (4) the local (millimeter-scale) heterogeneity of surface contamination in the soiling-prone location of Dubai relative to Kuwait. The results of the UV study have already been used to improve the standardized weathering of encapsulants. The example for Damp Heat testing is given to increase awareness of a degradation believed to be ubiquitously occurring in safety and design-type qualification testing of PV modules.

41 EE - Solar Energy Technologies Office (EE-4S)↗

DOE OSTI2018

Mechanisms of adhesion degradation at the photovoltiac module's cell metallization-encapsulant interface

Adhesion measurements and chemical characterization of the encapsulant/silver metallization interface of a photovoltaic (PV) module through temperature, humidity, and voltage bias exposures were conducted. Results demonstrate two independent degradation mechanisms: (a) with voltage bias, the ionic conduction of Na + ions through the encapsulant results in the formation of sodium silicate at the silver metallization surface, thereby weakening that interface and (b) with moisture ingress, dissociation of the silane bonding to silver in the silver oxide similarly weakens this interface resulting in significantly lower debond energies.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2019

Expanding the Photovoltaic Supply Chain in the United States: Opportunities and Challenges

Growth in U.S. manufacturing of solar-grade polysilicon, photovoltaic (PV) cells, and PV modules has not kept pace with global growth in these industries, and in some cases has even decreased. As a result, the United States has lost approximately 80% of its global market share in these industries over the past decade. However, projections of strong PV demand growth continuing in the United States and globally—along with significant announced U.S. cell and module plant expansions—suggest that PV could have important near-term impacts on related U.S. manufacturing sectors. This report primarily considers the infrastructure availability in the United States to meet demand for industries upstream of PV manufacturing if all U.S. PV installations were manufactured domestically from domestically sourced materials and components. It does not evaluate economic factors such as cost-competitiveness with other countries, policy incentives, shipping costs, and so forth, which are important factors to evaluate but are outside the scope of this work. Our goal is to delineate the infrastructure challenges and opportunities that upstream U.S. manufacturing sectors could encounter if the U.S. PV manufacturing sector grows. This analysis could be used in future discussions of the feasibility of creating a domestic PV supply chain that relies on domestic sourcing for upstream materials.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗