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NASA NTRS2011

Short Range-Ordered Minerals: Insight into Aqueous Alteration Processes on Mars

Short range-ordered (SRO) aluminosilicates (e.g., allophane) and nanophase ferric oxides (npOx) are common SRO minerals derived during aqueous alteration of basaltic materials. NpOx refers to poorly crystalline or amorphous alteration products that can be any combination of superparamagnetic hematite and/or goethite, akaganeite, schwertmannite, ferrihydrite, iddingsite, and nanometer-sized ferric oxide particles that pigment palagonitic tephra. Nearly 30 years ago, SRO phases were suggested as alteration phases on Mars based on similar spectral properties for altered basaltic tephra on the slopes of Mauna Kea in Hawaii and Martian bright regions measured by Earth-based telescopes. Detailed characterization of altered basaltic tephra on Mauna Kea have identified a variety of alteration phases including allophane, npOx, hisingerite, jarosite, alunite, hematite, goethite, ferrihydrite, halloysite, kaolinite, smectite, and zeolites. The presence of npOx and other Fe-bearing minerals (jarosite, hematite, goethite) was confirmed by the M ssbauer Spectrometer onboard the Mars Exploration Rovers. Although the presence of allophane has not been definitely identified on Mars robotic missions, chemical analysis by the Spirit and Opportunity rovers and thermal infrared spectral orbital measurements suggest the presence of allophane or allophane-like phases on Mars. SRO phases form under a variety of environmental conditions on Earth ranging from cold and arid to warm and humid, including hydrothermal conditions. The formation of SRO aluminosilicates such as allophane (and crystalline halloysite) from basaltic material is controlled by several key factors including activity of water, extent of leaching, Si activity in solution, and available Al. Generally, a low leaching index (e.g., wet-dry cycles) and slightly acidic to alkaline conditions are necessary. NpOx generally form under aqueous oxidative weathering conditions, although thermal oxidative alteration may occasional be involved. The style of aqueous alteration (hydrolytic vs. acid sulfate) impacts which phases will form (e.g., oxides, oxysulfates, and oxyhydroxides). Knowledge on the formation processes of SRO phases in basaltic materials on Earth has allowed significant enhancement in our understanding of the aqueous processes at work on Mars. The 2011 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) will provide an instrument suite that should improve our understanding of the mineralogical and chemical compositions of SRO phases. CheMin is an X-ray diffraction instrument that may provide broad X-ray diffraction peaks for SRO phases; e.g., broad peaks around 0.33 and 0.23 nm for allophane. Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) heats samples and detects evolved gases of volatile-bearing phases including SRO phases (i.e., carbonates, sulfates, hydrated minerals). The Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) and ChemCam element analyzers will provide chemical characterization of samples. The identification of SRO phases in surface materials on MSL will be challenging due to their nanocrystalline properties; their detection and identification will require utilizing the MSL instrument suite in concert. Ultimately, sample return missions will be required to definitively identify and fully characterize SRO minerals with state-of-the-art laboratory instrumentation back on Earth.

Ming, Douglas W.↗
NASA NTRS2011

In Situ Strategy of the 2011 Mars Science Laboratory to Investigate the Habitability of Ancient Mars

The ten science investigations of the 2011 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Rover named "Curiosity" seek to provide a quantitative assessment of habitability through chemical and geological measurements from a highly capable robotic' platform. This mission seeks to understand if the conditions for life on ancient Mars are preserved in the near-surface geochemical record. These substantial payload resources enabled by MSL's new entry descent and landing (EDL) system have allowed the inclusion of instrument types nevv to the Mars surface including those that can accept delivered sample from rocks and soils and perform a wide range of chemical, isotopic, and mineralogical analyses. The Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin) experiment that is located in the interior of the rover is a powder x-ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) instrument that provides elemental and mineralogical information. The Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) suite of instruments complements this experiment by analyzing the volatile component of identically processed samples and by analyzing atmospheric composition. Other MSL payload tools such as the Mast Camera (Mastcam) and the Chemistry & Camera (ChemCam) instruments are utilized to identify targets for interrogation first by the arm tools and subsequent ingestion into SAM and CheMin using the Sample Acquisition, Processing, and Handling (SA/SPaH) subsystem. The arm tools include the Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) and the Chemistry and Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXX). The Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) instrument provides subsurface identification of hydrogen such as that contained in hydrated minerals

Mahaffy, Paul R.↗
NASA NTRS2011

Qualification of Fiber Optic Cables for Martian Extreme Temperature Environments

Means have been developed for enabling fiber optic cables of the Laser Induced Breakdown Spectrometer instrument to survive ground operations plus the nominal 670 Martian conditions that include Martian summer and winter seasons. The purpose of this development was to validate the use of the rover external fiber optic cabling of ChemCam for space applications under the extreme thermal environments to be encountered during the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission. Flight-representative fiber optic cables were subjected to extreme temperature thermal cycling of the same diurnal depth (or delta T) as expected in flight, but for three times the expected number of in-flight thermal cycles. The survivability of fiber optic cables was tested for 600 cumulative thermal cycles from -130 to +15 C to cover the winter season, and another 1,410 cumulative cycles from -105 to +40 C to cover the summer season. This test satisfies the required 3 times the design margin that is a total of 2,010 thermal cycles (670 x 3). This development test included functional optical transmission tests during the course of the test. Transmission of the fiber optic cables was performed prior to and after 1,288 thermal cycles and 2,010 thermal cycles. No significant changes in transmission were observed on either of the two representative fiber cables subject through the 3X MSL mission life that is 2,010 thermal cycles.

Ramesham, Rajeshuni↗
NASA NTRS2014

Chemical Evidence for Smectites and Zeolites on Mars: Criteria and Limitations

Aqueous alteration on Mars can produce a range of tell-tale secondary minerals [1]. Surface missions typically obtain detailed and highly localized element compositional information, but not always mineralogical information, whereas orbital missions deduce mineralogy from relatively high spatial resolution IR spectral mapping (decameters scale, for CRISM), but obtain element data only over much larger areas of martian terrain (~200 km). Surface missions have also discovered several occurrences of major geochemical alteration of igneous precursors, for many of which elemental compositional is the only diagnostic information available. Many types of clays and zeolites have quasi-unique element profiles which may be used to implicate their presence. In some cases, one or more candidate minerals are sufficiently close in their component elements and their stoichiometry that ambiguity must remain, unless other constraints can be brought to bear. Geochemical characteristics of alteration products most likely on Mars can be compared to results from MER and MSL rover missions (e.g. Independence [4] and Esperance samples). These considerations are needed for MER Opportunity rover now that Mini-TES is no longer operational. It also has importance for exploration by the MSL Curiosity rover because inferences and deductions available from ChemCam (CCAM) remote LIBS and/or in situ x-ray fluorescence (APXS) can be used as indicators for triage to select materials to sample for limited-resource instruments, SAM and Chemin.

Clark, B. C.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Characterization of Synthetic and Natural Manganese Oxides as Martian Analogues

Recent discoveries of highly concentrated manganese oxides in Gale Crater and on the rim of Endeavour Crater by the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity and Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, respectively, imply more highly oxidizing aqueous conditions than previously recognized. Manganese oxides are a significant environmental indicator about ancient aqueous conditions, provided the phases can be characterized reliably. Manganese oxides are typically fine-grained and poorly crystalline, making the mineral structures difficult to determine, and they generally have very low visible reflectance with few distinctive spectral features in the visible to near infrared, making them a challenge for interpretation from remote sensing data. Therefore, these recent discoveries motivate better characterization using methods available on Mars, particularly visible to near infrared (VNIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), and compositional measurements. Both rovers have complementary instruments in this regard. Opportunity is equipped with its multispectral visible imager, Pancam, and an Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS), and Curiosity has the multispectral Mastcam, ChemCam (laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and passive spectroscopy), and APXS for in situ characterization, and ChemMin (XRD) for collected samples.

Fox, V. K.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Centimeter to Decimeter Size Spherical and Cylindrical Features in Gale Crater Sediments

The Curiosity rover traverse in Gale crater has explored a large series of sedimentary deposits in an ancient lake on Mars. Over the nine kilometers of traverse a recurrent observation has been southward-dipping sedimentary strata, from Shaler at the edge of Yellowknife Bay to the striated units near the Kimberley. Within the sedimentary strata cm- to decimeter- size hollow spheroidal objects and some apparent cylindrical objects have been observed. These features have not been seen by previous landed missions. The first of these were observed on sol 122 in the Gillespie Lake member at Yellowknife Bay. Additional hollow features were observed in the Point Lake outcrop in the same area. More recently a spherical and apparently hollow object, Winnipesaukee, was observed by ChemCam and Mastcam on sol 653. Here we describe the settings, morphology, and associated compositions, and we discuss possible origins of these objects.

Wiens, R. C.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Diagenetic Features Analyzed by ChemCam/Curiosity at Pahrump Hills, Gale Crater, Mars

Onboard the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity rover, the ChemCam instrument consists of : (1) a Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectrometer (LIBS) for elemental analysis of targets and (2) a Remote Micro Imager (RMI), which provides imaging context for the LIBS. The LIBS/ChemCam performs analysis typically of spot sizes 350-550 micrometers in diameter, up to 7 meters from the rover. Within Gale crater, Curiosity traveled from Bradbury Landing toward the base of Mount Sharp, reaching Pahrump Hills outcrop circa sol 750. This region, as seen from orbit, represents the first exposures of lower Mount Sharp. In this abstract we focus on two types of features present within the Pahrump Hills outcrop: concretion features and light-toned veins.

Nachon, M.↗
NASA NTRS2015

Ruggedized Spectrometers Are Built for Tough Jobs

The Mars Curiosity Chemistry and Camera instrument, or ChemCam, analyzes the elemental composition of materials on the Red Planet by using a spectrometer to measure the wavelengths of light they emit. Principal investigator Roger Wiens worked with Ocean Optics, out of Dunedin, Florida, to rework the company's spectrometer to operate in cold and rowdy conditions and also during the stresses of liftoff. Those improvements have been incorporated into the firm's commercial product line.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2009

Automated Targeting for the MER Rovers

The Autonomous Exploration for Gathering Increased Science System (AEGIS) will soon provide automated targeting for remote sensing instruments on the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission, which currently which currently has two rovers exploring the surface of Mars. Currently, targets for rover remote-sensing instruments, especially narrow field-of-view instruments (such as the MER Mini- TES spectrometer or the 2011 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Mission ChemCam Spectrometer), must be selected manually based on imagery already on the ground with the operations team. AEGIS enables the rover flight software to analyze imagery onboard in order to autonomously select and sequence targeted remote-sensing observations in an opportunistic fashion. In this paper, we first provide some background information on the larger autonomous science framework in which AEGIS was developed. We then describe how AEGIS was specifically developed and tested on the JPL FIDO rover. Finally we discuss how AEGIS will be uploaded and used on the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission in early 2009.

rover autonomy↗
NASA NTRS2015

Continued Development of in Situ Geochronology for Planetary Missions

The instrument 'Potassium (K) Argon Laser Experiment' (KArLE) is developed and designed for in situ absolute dating of rocks on planetary surfaces. It is based on the K-Ar dating method and uses the Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy - Laser Ablation - Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry (LIBSLA- QMS) technique. We use a dedicated interface to combine two instruments similar to SAM of Mars Science Laboratory (for the QMS) and ChemCam (for the LA and LIBS). The prototype has demonstrated that KArLE is a suitable and promising instrument for in situ absolute dating.

geochronology↗
NASA NTRS2016

Mineralogical and Geochemical Trends in a Fluviolacustrine Sequence in Gale Crater, Mars

The Mars Science Laboratory rover, Curiosity, landed at Gale crater in August 2012 and has been investigating a sequence of dominantly fluviolacustrine sediments deposited 3.6-3.2 billion years ago. Curiosity collects quantitative mineralogical data with the CheMin XRD/XRF instrument and quantitative chemical data with the APXS and ChemCam instruments. These datasets show stratigraphic mineralogical and geochemical variability that suggest a complex aqueous history. The Murray Formation, primarily composed of fine-laminated mudstone, has been studied in detail since the arrival at the Pahrump Hills in September 2014. CheMin data from four samples show variable amounts of iron oxides, phyllosilicates, sulfates, amorphous and crystalline silica, and mafic silicate minerals. Geochemical data throughout the section show that there is significant variability in Zn, Ni, and Mn concentrations. Mineralogical and geochemical trends with stratigraphy suggest one of possibly several aqueous episodes involved alteration in an open system under acidic pH, though other working hypotheses may explain these and other trends. Data from the Murray Formation contrast with those collected from the Sheepbed mudstone located approximately 60 meters below the base of the Murray Formation, which showed evidence for diagenesis in a closed system at circumneutral pH. Ca-sulfates filled late-stage veins in both mudstones.

Rampe, E.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Continued Development of in Situ Geochronology for Planetary Using KArLE (Potassium-Argon Laser Experiment)

Geochronology is a fundamental measurement for planetary samples, providing the ability to establish an absolute chronology for geological events, including crystallization history, magmatic evolution, and alteration events, and providing global and solar system context for such events. The capability for in situ geochronology will open up the ability for geochronology to be accomplished as part of lander or rover complement, on multiple samples rather than just those returned. An in situ geochronology package can also complement sample return missions by identifying the most interesting rocks to cache or return to Earth. The K-Ar radiometric dating approach to in situ dating has been validated by the Curiosity rover on Mars as well as several laboratories on Earth. Several independent projects developing in situ rock dating for planetary samples, based on the K-Ar method, are giving promising results. Among them, the Potassium (K)-Argon Laser Experiment (KArLE) at MSFC is based on techniques already in use for in planetary exploration, specifically, Laser-induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS, used on the Curiosity Chemcam), mass spectroscopy (used on multiple planetary missions, including Curiosity, ExoMars, and Rosetta), and optical imaging (used on most missions).

In SITU Geochronology↗
NASA NTRS2017

Bulk Hydrogen Content OF High-Silica Rocks in Gale Crater With the Active Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons Experiment

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity rover recently traversed over plateaus of mafic aeolian sandstones (the 'Stimson' formation) that overlie mudstones (the 'Murray' formation). Within the Stimson formation we observed many lighter-toned, halo-forming features, that are potentially indicative of fluid alteration (see Fig. 1). These halo features extend for tens of meters laterally and are approx.1 meter wide. The halo features were characterized by Curiosity's geochemical instruments: Alpha Proton X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS), Chemin, Chemcam and Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM). With respect to the host (unaltered) Stimson rocks, fracture halos were significantly enriched in silicon and low in iron [1]. Changes in hydrogen abundance (due to its large neutron scattering cross section) greatly influence the magnitude of the thermal neutron response from the Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) instrument [2]. There are also some elemental species, e.g. chlorine, iron, and nickel, that have significant microscopic neutron absorption cross sections. These elements can be abundant and variable results provide a useful estimate of the lower bound for bulk hydrogen content (assuming a homogeneous distribution).

Gabriel, T. S. J.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Unreported Emission Lines of Rb, Ce, La, Sr, Y, Zr, Pb and Se Detected Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Information on emission lines for major and minor elements is readily available from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as part of the Atomic Spectra Database. However, tabulated emission lines are scarce for some minor elements and the wavelength ranges presented on the NIST database are limited to those included in existing studies. Previous work concerning minor element calibration curves measured using laser-induced break-down spectroscopy found evidence of Zn emission lines that were not documented on the NIST database. In this study, rock powders were doped with Rb, Ce, La, Sr, Y, Zr, Pb and Se in concentrations ranging from 10 percent to 10 parts per million. The difference between normalized spectra collected on samples containing 10 percent dopant and those containing only 10 parts per million were used to identify all emission lines that can be detected using LIBS (Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy) in a ChemCam-like configuration at the Mount Holyoke College LIBS facility. These emission spectra provide evidence of many previously undocumented emission lines for the elements measured here.

LIBS↗
NASA NTRS2017

Oxychlorine Species in Gale Crater and Broader Implications for Mars

Of 15 samples analyzed to date, the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) has detected oxychlorine compounds (perchlorate or chlorate) in 12 samples. The presence of oxychlorine species is inferred from the release of oxygen at temperatures less than 600degC and HCl between 350-850degC when a sample is heated to 850degC. The O2 release temperature varies with sample, likely caused by different cations, grain size differences, or catalytic effects of other minerals. In the oxychlorine-containing samples, perchlorate abundances range from 0.06 +/- 0.03 to 1.15 +/- 0.5 wt% Cl2O7 equivalent. Comparing these results to the elemental Cl concentration measured by the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) instrument, oxychlorine species account for 5-40% of the total Cl present. The variation in oxychlorine abundance has implications for their production and preservation over time. For example, the John Klein (JK) and Cumberland (CB) samples were acquired within a few meters of each other and CB contained approximately1.2 wt% Cl2O7 equivalent while JK had approximately 0.1 wt%. One difference between the two samples is that JK has a large number of veins visible in the drill hole wall, indicating more post-deposition alteration and removal. Finally, despite Cl concentrations similar to previous samples, the last three Murray formation samples (Oudam, Marimba, and Quela) had no detectable oxygen released during pyrolysis. This could be a result of oxygen reacting with other species in the sample during pyrolysis. Lab work has shown this is likely to have occurred in SAM but it is unlikely to have consumed all the O2 released. Another explanation is that the Cl is present as chlorides, which is consistent with data from the ChemCam (Chemical Camera) and CheMin (Chemistry and Mineralogy) instruments on MSL. For example, the Quela sample has approximately1 wt% elemental Cl detected by APXS, had no detectable O2 released, and halite (NaCl) has been tentatively identified in CheMin X-ray diffraction data. These data show that oxychlorines are likely globally distributed on Mars but the distribution is heterogenous depending on the perchlorate formation mechanism (production rate), burial, and subsequent diagenesis

Ming, Douglas W.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Origin and Speciation of Sulfur Compounds in the Murray Formation, Gale Crater, Mars

The Mars Curiosity rover has traversed nearly 20 km and gained over 350 meters in elevation since landing in Gale crater in August 2012. Through 2250 sols of surface operations, Curiosity has spent approximately 60% of its time investigating the Murray formation, a unit of layered sediments. The occurrence of sulfur compounds in the Murray formation has been established by imaging of light-toned veins by MastCam and MAHLI, chemical compositions measured by the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) and ChemCam, crystalline phase identifications by the CheMin X-ray diffractometer, and evolved gas analyses from the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument.

Yen, A. S.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Variations in Visible/Near-Infrared Hematite Spectra Related to Grain Size and Crystallinity

Drill fines created by the Curiosity rover at Gale Crater, Mars have exhibited variable visible/near-infrared spectral features attributable to the presence of ferrous and ferric minerals. Drilled locations within the Murray formation and on the Vera Rubin Ridge (VRR) were shown by the CheMin instrument to contain significant amounts of hematite. However, typical hematite spectral features (e.g., absorptions near 530 nm and 860 nm) have varied inconsistently with hematite abundances. This suggests that other factors such as hematite grain size or crystallinity, the presence of amorphous materials, and/or photometric effects play a role in the observed spectra. Using laboratory spectra of hematite acquired at difference grain sizes, we document the variability in key spectral features. We also compare spectral parameters computed from Mastcam spectra on Mars of three hematite-bearing ChemCam calibration target (CCCT) samples with known hematite and amorphous material abundances.

Johnson, J. R.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Using Mineralchemistry in Gale Crater Sedimentary Rocks to Constrain Ancient Igneous Processes on Mars

Over the last decade, various datasets have shown evidence for unexpected Noachian felsic materials at the surface of Mars. The Martian meteorite NWA 7034, also well-known as Black Beauty, has been identified as a regolith breccia containing mafic clasts along with remarkable felsic igneous clasts dated at 4.43 Gyr and classified as monzonitic [1-2]. In addition, the Curiosity rover has been analyzing felsic materials within Gale crater since its landing in 2012 [3-4]. The X-ray diffractometer (XRD) in the CheMin instrument and the laser induced breakdown spectrometer (LIBS) ChemCam onboard Curiosity identified plagioclase and K-spar along with augite and pigeonite [3-5]. In sedimentary rocks, those minerals are detrital, coming from a magmatic source of Noachian age that was sufficiently evolved to form K-spar [1,6]. Several igneous materials analyzed by Chem- Cam have been classified as part of the alkaline trend including Harrison, a trachy-andesite [7].

Payre, V.↗