Vertical structure and physical processes of the Madden‐Julian oscillation: Linking hindcast fidelity to simulated diabatic heating and moistening
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Nicholas P. Klingaman↗
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Test particle propagation in magnetostatic turbulence. 3: The approach to equilibrium
The asymptotic behavior, for large time, of the quasi-linear diabatic solutions and their local approximations is considered. A time averaging procedure is introduced which yields the averages of these solutions over time intervals which contain only large time values. A discussion of the quasi-linear diabatic solutions which is limited to those solutions that are bounded from below as functions of time is given. It is shown that as the upper limit of the time averaging interval is allowed to approach infinity the time averaged quasi-linear diabatic solutions must approach isotropy (mu-independence). The first derivative with respect to mu of these solutions is also considered. This discussion is limited to first derivatives which are bounded functions of time. It is shown that as the upper limit of the time averaging interval is allowed to approach infinity, the time averaged first derivative must approach zero everywhere in mu except at mu = 0 where it must approach a large value which is calculated. The impact of this large derivative on the quasi-linear expansion scheme is discussed. An H-theorem for the first local approximation to the quasi-linear diabatic solutions is constructed. Without time averaging, the H-theorem is used to determine sufficient conditions for the first local approximate solutions to asymptote, with increasing time, to exactly the same final state which the time averaged quasi-linear diabatic solutions must approach as discussed above.
Klimas, A. J.↗
The mesoscale forcing of a midlatitude upper-tropospheric jet streak by a simulated convective system. 1: Mass circulation and ageostrophic processes
The mutual forcing of a midlatitude upper-tropospheric jet streak by organized mesoscale adiabatic and diabatic processes within a simulated convective system (SCS) is investigated. Using isentropic diagnostics, results from a three-dimensional numerical simulation of an SCS are examined to study the isallobaric flow field, modes of dominant ageostrophic motion, and stability changes in relation to the mutual interdependence of adiabatic processes and latent heat release. Isentropic analysis affords an explicit isolation of a component of isallobaric flow associated with diabatic processes within the SCS. Prior to convective development within the simulations, atmospheric destabilization occurs through adiabatic ageostrophic mass adjustment and low-level convergence in association with the preexisting synoptic-scale upper-tropospheric jet streak. The SCS develops in a baroclinic zone and quickly initiates a vigorous mass circulation. By the mature stage, a pronounced vertical couplet of low-level convergence and upper-level mass divergence is established, linked by intense midtropospoheric diabatic heating. Significant divergence persists aloft for several hours subsequent to SCS decay. The dominant role of ageostrophic motion within which the low-level mass convergence develops is the adiabatic isallobaric component, while the mass divergence aloft develops principally through the diabatic isallobaric component. Both compnents are intrinsically linked to the convectively forced vertical mass transport. The inertial diabatic ageostrophic component is largest near the level of maximum heating and is responsible for the development of inertial instability to the north of SCS, resulting in this quadrant being preferred for outflow. The inertial advective component, the dominant term that produces the new downstream wind maximum, rapidly develops north of the SCS and through mutual adjustment creates the baroclinic support for the new jet streak.
Wolf, Bart J.↗
The mesoscale forcing of a midlatitude upper-tropospheric jet streak by a simulated convective system. 2: Kinetic energy and resolution analysis
A kinetic energy (KE) analysis of the forcing of a mesoscale upper-tropospheric jet streak by organized diabatic processes within the simulated convective system (SCS) that was discussed in Part 1 is presented in this study. The relative contributions of the ageostrophic components of motion to the generation of KE of the convectively generated jet streak are compared, along with the KE generation by the rotational (nondivergent) and irrotational (divergent) mass transport. The sensitivity of the numerical simulations of SCS development to resolution is also briefly examined. Analysis within isentropic coordinates provides for an explicit determination of the influence of the diabatic processes on the generation of KE. The upper-level production of specific KE is due predominatly to the inertial advective ageostrophic component (IAD), and as such represents the primary process through which the KE of the convectively generated jet streak is realized. A secondary contribution by the inertial diabatic (IDI) term is observed. Partitioning the KE generation into its rotational and irrotational components reveals that the latter, which is directly linked to the diabatic heating within the SCS through isentropic continuity requirements, is the ultimate source of KE generation as the global area integral of generation by the rotational component vanishes. Comparison with an identical dry simulation reveals that the net generation of KE must be attributed to latent heating. Both the IAD and IDI ageostrophic components play important roles in this regard. Examination of results from simulations conducted at several resolutions supports the previous findings in that the effects of diabatic processes and ageostrophic motion on KE generation remain consistent. Resolution does impact the location and timing of SCS development, a result that has important implications in forecasting the onset of convection that develops from evolution of the large-scale flow and moisture transport. Marked differences are observed in the momentum field aloft subsequent to the life cycle of the SCS in the 1 deg, 30-level base case (MP130) simulation discussed in Part 1 versus its 2 deg counterparts in that the MP130 simulation with higher spatial resolution contains from 14% to 30% more total KE.
Wolf, Bart J.↗
The global residual mean circulation in the middle atmosphere for the northern winter period
The residual mean circulation (rmc) has been calculated from the transformed thermodynamic equation using LIMS (Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere) data for the 100-0.1 mb region. For discussion, it has been divided into two components: the diabatic circulation, associated with the diabatic heating, and the transient circulation, more directly connected to eddy activity. The slowly varying diabatic circulation reveals an equator-to-pole circulation at lower levels in the stratosphere, usually overlain by a summer-to-winter pole circulation. However, there are strong seasonal variations, so that the pole-to-pole circulation fills the entire region at the December solstice, while the equator-to-pole circulation extends to above 0.1 mb at the equinoxes. The transient circulation is characterized by rapid variations and small vertical and horizontal scales. Though generally smaller than the diabatic circulation, it can dominate in the lower stratosphere during disturbed conditions. This circulation is consistent with the transformed momentum equation in the lower stratosphere (where drag is expected to be small) during undisturbed periods. It suggests a large drag due to small-scale waves (such as gravity waves) in the mesosphere, although the magnitudes are uncertain. The downward propagation of the semiannual oscillation causes the rmc in the tropics to vary, and it is capable of creating the equatorial water vapor maximum above 10 mb.
Gille, John C.↗
Forecast model applications of retrieved three dimensional liquid water fields
Forecasts are made for tropical storm Emily using heating rates derived from the SSM/I physical retrievals described in chapters 2 and 3. Average values of the latent heating rates from the convective and stratiform cloud simulations, used in the physical retrieval, are obtained for individual 1.1 km thick vertical layers. Then, the layer-mean latent heating rates are regressed against the slant path-integrated liquid and ice precipitation water contents to determine the best fit two parameter regression coefficients for each layer. The regression formulae and retrieved precipitation water contents are utilized to infer the vertical distribution of heating rates for forecast model applications. In the forecast model, diabatic temperature contributions are calculated and used in a diabatic initialization, or in a diabatic initialization combined with a diabatic forcing procedure. Our forecasts show that the time needed to spin-up precipitation processes in tropical storm Emily is greatly accelerated through the application of the data.
Raymond, William H.↗
The quantum dynamics of electronically nonadiabatic chemical reactions
Considerable progress was achieved on the quantum mechanical treatment of electronically nonadiabatic collisions involving energy transfer and chemical reaction in the collision of an electronically excited atom with a molecule. In the first step, a new diabatic representation for the coupled potential energy surfaces was created. A two-state diabatic representation was developed which was designed to realistically reproduce the two lowest adiabatic states of the valence bond model and also to have the following three desirable features: (1) it is more economical to evaluate; (2) it is more portable; and (3) all spline fits are replaced by analytic functions. The new representation consists of a set of two coupled diabatic potential energy surfaces plus a coupling surface. It is suitable for dynamics calculations on both the electronic quenching and reaction processes in collisions of Na(3p2p) with H2. The new two-state representation was obtained by a three-step process from a modified eight-state diatomics-in-molecules (DIM) representation of Blais. The second step required the development of new dynamical methods. A formalism was developed for treating reactions with very general basis functions including electronically excited states. Our formalism is based on the generalized Newton, scattered wave, and outgoing wave variational principles that were used previously for reactive collisions on a single potential energy surface, and it incorporates three new features: (1) the basis functions include electronic degrees of freedom, as required to treat reactions involving electronic excitation and two or more coupled potential energy surfaces; (2) the primitive electronic basis is assumed to be diabatic, and it is not assumed that it diagonalizes the electronic Hamiltonian even asymptotically; and (3) contracted basis functions for vibrational-rotational-orbital degrees of freedom are included in a very general way, similar to previous prescriptions for locally adiabatic functions in various quantum scattering algorithms.
Truhlar, Donald G.↗
Short-range precipitation forecasts using assimilation of simulated satellite water vapor profiles and column cloud liquid water amounts
These observing system simulation experiments investigate the assimilation of satellite-observed water vapor and cloud liquid water data in the initialization of a limited-area primitive equations model with the goal of improving short-range precipitation forecasts. The assimilation procedure presented includes two aspects: specification of an initial cloud liquid water vertical distribution and diabatic initialization. The satellite data is simulated for the next generation of polar-orbiting satellite instruments, the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) and the High-Resolution Infrared Sounder (HIRS), which are scheduled to be launched on the NOAA-K satellite in the mid-1990s. Based on cloud-top height and total column cloud liquid water amounts simulated for satellite data a diagnostic method is used to specify an initial cloud water vertical distribution and to modify the initial moisture distribution in cloudy areas. Using a diabatic initialization procedure, the associated latent heating profiles are directly assimilated into the numerical model. The initial heating is estimated by time averaging the latent heat release from convective and large-scale condensation during the early forecast stage after insertion of satellite-observed temperature, water vapor, and cloud water formation. The assimilation of satellite-observed moisture and cloud water, together withy three-mode diabatic initialization, significantly alleviates the model precipitation spinup problem, especially in the first 3 h of the forecast. Experimental forecasts indicate that the impact of satellite-observed temperature and water vapor profiles and cloud water alone in the initialization procedure shortens the spinup time for precipitation rates by 1-2 h and for regeneration of the areal coverage by 3 h. The diabatic initialization further reduces the precipitation spinup time (compared to adiabatic initialization) by 1 h.
Wu, Xiaohua↗
Diagnostic calculations of the circulation in the Martian atmosphere
The circulation of the Martian atmosphere during late southern summer is derived from atmospheric temperature and dust distributions retrieved from a subset of the Mariner 9 infrared interferometer spectrometer (IRIS) thermal emission spectra (LS = 343-348 deg) (Santee and Crisp, 1933). Zonal-mean zonal winds are calculated by assuming gradient wind balance and zero surface zonal wind. Both hemispheres have intense midlatitude westerly jets with velocities of 80-90 m/s near 50 km; in the southern tropics the winds are easterly with velocities of 40 m/s near 50 km. The net effect of the zonal-mean meridional circulation and large-scale waves can be approximated by the diabatic ciculation, which is defined from the atmospheric thermal structure and net radiative heating rates. The radiative transfer model described by Crisp (1990) and Santee (1993) is used to compute solar heating and thermal cooling rates from diurnal averages of the retrieved IRIS temperature and dust distributions. At pressures below 4 mbar, there are large net radiative heating rates (up to 5 K/d) in the equatorial region and large net radiative cooling rates (up to 12 K/d) in the polar regions. These net radiative heating rates are used in a diagnostic stream function model which solves for the meridonal and vertical components of the diabatic circulation simultaneously. We find a two cell circulation, with rising motion over the equator, poleward flow in both hemispheres, sinking motion over both polar regions, and return flow in the lowest atmospheric levels. The maximum poleward velocity is 3 m/s in the tropics at approximately 55 km altitude, and the maximum vertical velocity is 2.5 cm/s downward over the north pole at approximately 60 km altitude. If these large transport rates are sustained for an entire season, the Martian atmosphere above the 1-mbar level is overturned in about 38 days. This diabatic circulation is qualitatively similar to the terrestial diabatic circulation at the comparable season, but is more vigorous.
Santee, Michelle L.↗
Observational and Modeling Studies of Radiative, Chemical, and Dynamical Interactions in the Earth''s Atmosphere
A 3-dimensional model was developed to support mechanistic studies. The model solves the global primitive equations in isentropic coordinates, which directly characterize diabatic processes forcing the Brewer-Dobson circulation of the middle atmosphere. It's numerical formulation is based on Hough harmonics, which partition horizontal motion into its rotational and divergent components. These computational features, along with others, enable 3D integrations to be performed practically on RISC computer architecture, on which they can be iterated to support mechanistic studies. The model conserves potential vorticity quite accurately under adiabatic conditions. Forced by observed tropospheric structure, in which integrations are anchored, the model generates a diabatic circulation that is consistent with satellite observations of tracer behavior and diabatic cooling rates. The model includes a basic but fairly complete treatment of gas-phase photochemistry that represents some 20 chemical species and 50 governing reactions with diurnally-varying shortwave absorption. The model thus provides a reliable framework to study transport and underlying diabatic processes, which can then be compared against chemical and dynamical structure observed and in GCM integrations. Integrations with the Langley GCM were performed to diagnose feedback between simulated convection and the tropical circulation. These were studied in relation to tropospheric properties controlling moisture convergence and environmental conditions supporting deep convection, for comparison against mechanistic integrations of wave CISK that successfully reproduce the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) of the tropical circulation. These comparisons were aimed at identifying and ultimately improving aspects of the convective simulation, with the objective of recovering a successful simulation of the MJO in the Langley GCM, behavior that should be important to budgets of upper-tropospheric water vapor and chemical species.
Salby, Murry↗
Diagnostic calculations of the circulation in the Martian atmosphere
The circulation of the Martian atmosphere during late southern summer is derived from atmospheric temperature and dust distributions retrieved from a subset of the Mariner 9 infrared interferometer spectrometer (IRIS) thermal emission spectra (L(sub s) = 343-348 deg). Zonal-mean zonal winds are calculated by assuming gradient wind balance and zero surface zonal wind. Both hemispheres have intense midlatitude westerly jets with velocities of 80-90 m/s near 50 km; in the southern tropics the winds are easterly with velocities of 40 m/s near 50 km. The net effect of the zonal mean meridional circulation and large-scale waves can be approximated by the diabatic circulation, which is defined from the atmospheric thermal structure and net radiative heating rates. The radiative transfer model described by Crisp (1990) and Santee (1993) is used to compute solar heating and thermal cooling rates from diurnal averages of the retrieved IRIS temperature and dust distributions. At pressures below 4 mbar, there are large net radiative heating rates (up to 5 K/d) in the equatorial region and large net radiative cooling rates (up to 12 K/d) in the polar regions. These net radiative heating rates are used in a diagnostic stream function model which solves for the meridional and vertical components of the diabatic circulation simultaneously. We find a two-cell circulation, with rising motion over the equator, poleward flow in both hemispheres, sinking motion over both polar regions, and return flow in the lowest atmospheric levels. The maximum poleward velocity is 3 m/s in the tropics at approx. 55 km altitude, and the maximum vertical velocity is 2.5 cm/s downward over the north pole at approx. 60 km altitude. If these large transport rates are sustained for an entire season, the Martian atmosphere above the 1-mbar level is overturned in about 38 days. This diabatic circulation is qualitatively similar to the terrestrial diabatic circulation at the comparable season, but is more vigorous.
Santee, Michelle L.↗
Extratropical Stratosphere-Troposphere Mass Exchange
Global net mass flux between the troposphere and the stratosphere can be computed simply by estimating the heating rate along the 380K isentropic surface and the time rate of change of the lower most stratosphere (region between the tropopause and 380K). Given the net tropopause mass flux and the cross tropopause diabatic flux, the residual adiabatic mass flux can be estimated. These fluxes have been computed using three different meteorological data sets, the FVGCM and two assimilation data sets, FVDAS, and UKMO, using the 3.5 PVU defined tropopause. For all three data sets, the extratropical diabatic flux across the tropopause is generally to be larger than the net flux cross tropopause flux implying that there is a net extra-tropical adiabatic flux of air from the troposphere into the middle world stratosphere. This adiabatic flux is four to five times larger than the flux into the stratosphere across the tropical tropopause. For the FVDAS, the tropopause diabatic flux is smaller than UKMO as a result of colder tropopause temperatures. The difference in the diabatic mass fluxes by almost a factor of two between the two data assimilation meteorological analyses is much larger than the interannual variability in the UKMO or FVGCM data sets. Compared to radiosonde estimated tropopause temperatures, both data assimilation tropopause temperatures are warm biased due to a low bias in the tropopause heights. These comparisons point to the PV determination of the tropopause height as the source of the differences in the mass fluxes.
Schoeberl, Mark↗
The Influence of Direct Radiative Forcing Versus Indirect Sea Surface Temperature Warming on Southern Hemisphere Subtropical Anticyclones Under Global Warming
Southern hemisphere subtropical anticyclones are projected to change in a warmer climate during both austral summer and winter. A recent study of CMIP 5 & 6 projections found a combination of local diabatic heating changes and static-stability-induced changes in baroclinic eddy growth as the dominant drivers. Yet the underlying mechanisms forcing these changes still remain uninvestigated. This study aims to enhance our mechanistic understanding of what drives these Southern Hemisphere anticyclones changes during both seasons. Using an AGCM, we decompose the response to CO2-induced warming into two components: (1) the fast atmospheric response to direct CO2 radiative forcing, and (2) the slow atmospheric response due to indirect sea surface temperature warming. Additionally, we isolate the influence of tropical diabatic heating with AGCM added heating experiments. As a complement to our numerical AGCM experiments, we analyze the Atmospheric and Cloud Feedback Model Intercomparison Project experiments. Results from sensitivity experiments show that slow subtropical sea surface temperature warming primarily forces the projected changes in subtropical anticyclones through baroclinicity change. Fast CO2 atmospheric radiative forcing on the other hand plays a secondary role, with the most notable exception being the South Atlantic subtropical anticyclone in austral winter, where it opposes the forcing by sea surface temperature changes resulting in a muted net response. Lastly, we find that tropical diabatic heating changes only significantly influence Southern Hemisphere subtropical anticyclone changes through tropospheric wind shear changes during austral winter.
Subtropical anticyclone↗
Numerical prediction of the Mid-Atlantic states cyclone of 18-19 February 1979
A series of forecast experiments was conducted to assess the accuracy of the GLAS model, and to determine the importance of large scale dynamical processes and diabatic heating to the cyclogenesis. The GLAS model correctly predicted intense coastal cyclogenesis and heavy precipitation. Repeated without surface heat and moisture fluxes, the model failed to predict any cyclone development. An extended range forecast, a forecast from the NMC analysis interpolated to the GLAS grid, and a forecast from the GLAS analysis with the surface moisture flux excluded predicted weak coastal low development. Diabatic heating resulting from oceanic fluxes significantly contributed to the generation of low level cyclonic vorticity and the intensification and slow rate of movement of an upper level ridge over the western Atlantic. As an upper level short wave trough approached this ridge, diabatic heating associated with the release of latent heat intensified, and the gradient of vorticity, vorticity advection and upper level divergence in advance of the trough were greatly increased, providing strong large scale forcing for the surface cyclogenesis.
Atlas, R.↗
Numerical Prediction of the President's Day Cyclone
Numerical-diagnostic studies of major anomalous weather events are being conducted in order to investigate the relevant physical processes associated with the events and the role of satellite observing systems in the analysis and prediction of these phenomena. One component of this study is concerned with the numerical prediction of intense coastal and oceanic cyclogenesis. The specific objectives of this research are: (1) to assess the accuracy of Goddard Laboratory for Atmospheric Sciences model predictions of cyclogenesis, (2) to determine the importance of large scale dynamical processes and diabatic heating to the prediction, and (3) to evaluate the sensitivity of the model predictions to the initial conditions. It was shown that diabatic heating resulting from oceanic fluxes significantly contributed to the generation of low level cyclonic vorticity and the intensification and slow rate movement of an upper level ridge over the western Atlantic. As an upper level short-wave trough approached this ridge, diabatic heating associated with the release of latent heat intensified, and the gradient of vorticity, vorticity advection, upper level divergence, and upward vertical motion in advance of the trough were greatly increased, providing strong large-scale forcing for the surface cyclogenesis.
Atlas, R.↗
Generation of available potential energy and the energy cycle during the global weather experiment
Two parallel sets of analyses, which in one case included and in the other omitted data observed by satellite based and other FGGE special observing systems are examined. The results of our previous work is extended in two separate, but not unrelated, ways. First, from these two parallel analyses, which are labeled FGGE (full FGGE system) and NOSAT (satellite omitted), it was discovered that the two sets of fields were quite close over much of the globe. Locally the influence of satellite based systems led to some differences, particularly over the Southern Hemisphere Oceans. The diabatic heating fields generated by the GLA FGGE analysis was also examined. From these fields, one can ascertain the role of total diabatic heating and of the various diabatic heating components in the atmospheric energy cycle, in particular in the generation of available potential energy.
Salstein, D. A.↗
Meridional distribution of stratospheric trace constituents
Vertically stratified tracers such as methane and nitrous oxide tend to have constant mixing ratio surfaces that slope downward toward the poles in the meridional plane. The equilibrium tracer slope results from the competition between the slope steepening effects of advection by the diabatic circulation and the slope flattening effects of quasi-isentropic eddy transport and photochemical loss. The diabatic circulation iself is, however, driven primarily by eddy transports, which maintain the departure of stratospheric temperatures from radiative equilibrium. If the eddy transports are weak, the diabatic circulation is also weak and the slope is small. Using a simple beta-plane channel model and an eddy diffusion parameterization for the eddy potential vorticity and tracer transports, it is shown that the slope is a maximum for a value of eddy diffusion such that the dynamical time scale lies between the radiative and chemical time scales.
Holton, J. R.↗
Stratospheric constituent trends from ER-2 profile data
Trend analysis of the Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition's ER-2 profile data reveals an average decrease in N2O on potential temperature isentropes which can be attributed to diabatic cooling of inner vortex air. This conclusion is independently supported by radiative transfer computations. Trends in ozone and water vapor over the same period are not consistent with the magnitude of the diabatic descent. After accounting for the diabatic motion (estimated from N2O), an additional 0.44 + or - 0.3 percent/day average anomalous O3 decrease above 440 K (about 20 km) is needed to balance the continuity equation. This ozone decrease suggests additional photochemical destruction of ozone in the presence of the high amounts of ClO observed during the mission. A 0.4 + or - 0.3 percent/day average anomalous increase in H2O is also observed near 420 K (about 18 km) which may be due to the evaporation of ice crystals falling from higher, colder stratospheric layers.
Schoeberl, Mark R.↗