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DOE OSTI2025

NEPATEC2.0: NEPA Text Corpus v2.0

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended (NEPA), is a major environmental law in the United States, requiring Federal agencies to consider and document potential environmental impacts before deciding on a proposed action. Modernization of NEPA and permitting processes faces significant challenges due to the lack of standardized formats and interoperable systems for organizing and sharing NEPA-related information across agencies. Much of the information gathered during NEPA reviews is written into documents such as categorical exclusions, environmental assessments, and environmental impact statements, then filed in predominately independent agency file stores that may or may not be publicly accessible. The application of metadata and data standards, such as those recommended by the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), to NEPA documents offers a shared vocabulary and structure for key entities like projects, processes, and documents that can streamline information exchange and enhance collaboration across systems. In this work, we publicly release NEPATEC2.0, an expanded corpus of NEPA documents with associated metadata. NEPATEC2.0 encompasses approximately 120,000 documents from 60,000 projects prepared by more than 60 different agencies. Modeled to align with CEQ metadata standards, NEPATEC2.0 promotes consistency in environmental reviews and supports the ongoing effort to modernize permitting technologies by facilitating more transparent, efficient, and data-driven decision-making. Importantly, NEPATEC2.0 demonstrates the possibilities and limitations of large language model-based prompting to extract information from NEPA documents at scale.

environmental review↗

DOE OSTI2025

NEPATEC v2.0: Standardized Metadata and Text Corpus of National Environmental Policy Act Documents

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Characterizing Ocean Acidification and Atmospheric Emission caused by Methane Released from Gas Hydrate Systems along the US Atlantic Margin (Final Report)

To assess the environmental impact of decomposing gas hydrates, this project characterized the atmospheric emission and ocean acidification associated with seafloor-released methane along the U.S. Atlantic Margin. This project leveraged the newly discovered seafloor seeps in this region, many of which are located near the landward limit of gas hydrate stability, to investigate the fate and environmental impact of methane once released from the seafloor. Several research directions were pursued during these investigations. First, high-spatial resolution surface surveys were conducted to characterize the degree to which sea-to-air emission of methane is correlated with acoustically detected seafloor bubble emissions. Second, the natural isotopic signatures of both radiocarbon and δ 13 C were measured throughout the water column to observe if seafloor-released methane was detected in surface waters or if it was replaced by a different source. Third, the extent of methane oxidation in the water column was constrained to assess the ability of this process to mitigate atmospheric methane emissions. Fourth, since aerobic methane oxidation ultimately converts methane to carbon dioxide, the extent of ocean acidification relating to this process was assessed. Ultimately, this project was conducted in four stages. Stage one involved preparations for the research expedition along the U.S. Atlantic Margin. This involved calibrating, modifying, and validating equipment needed for sample and data collection in this unique environment. Stage two involved executing the at-sea science. This research was conducted from 25 August to 5 September 2017 on the R/V Hugh R. Sharp. This expedition left from Lewes, Delaware and investigated the continental slope from approximately this latitude down to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Third, any samples unanalyzed on the research vessel were returned to the laboratory and measured. Fourth, the data were interpreted, and publications and presentations were prepared.

03 NATURAL GAS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Technoeconomic Analysis of Kraft Pulp Mill Integration with an Advanced Nuclear Reactor

This study focuses on post-combustion capture and oxy-fuel combustion for the boilers at the mill, as well as steam integration with the nuclear power plant. The primary goal of the research outlined in this report is to design, analyze, and document the integration of industrial-scale HTGR with a reference Kraft Pulp Mill. The purpose is to deliver reliable, cost-effective, and sustainable clean energy alternatives while reducing CO2 emissions. Specifically, this study focuses on 6 different scenarios that include carbon capture equipment and some of them use nuclear power to meet the heat and electricity needs of the reference plant. Also, 2 of these scenarios are created while also producing clean hydrogen through integrated High-Temperature Steam Electrolysis (HTSE). This report offers a detailed techno-economic assessment of different scenarios for a Kraft Pulp Mill, including an analysis of tax credits (section 45V, 45Q, and 48E) provided by the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) of 2022. The evaluation explores the potential economic benefits and challenges of incorporating different configurations, including nuclear energy, into Kraft Pulp Mill operations, with particular attention to energy efficiency, economic implications, and environmental impact. By assessing both the technical feasibility and economic viability, this analysis aims to identify existing gaps and propose solutions for the successful implementation of nuclear integration. The findings are intended to provide valuable insights for stakeholders considering the adoption of advanced nuclear reactors in the pulp and paper industries.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2020

Feedback on Forty-year Long Clean-up Operations of a Contaminated Soil for Environmental Purpose - 20026

One of the CEA facilities in France is the place of miscellaneous mapping and clean-up operations since the 1980's. The final purpose of the conducted work deals with the environmental remediation of the building. In France, the absence of a regulatory framework for the management of sites polluted by radioactive substances, especially as the lack of release thresholds, has led to develop different approaches of soil radiological characterization. The geostatistical approach is part of them. Preliminary investigations are an unavoidable step prior to clearance and remediation. First, historical analysis enables to define site perimeters to investigate as well as to precisely locate expected contaminated parts. For radioactive pollutants, the media (water, soil, air) and transfer routes participate in the definition of the investigation perimeter and thus also need to be identified through a geological study. At the same time, functional analysis leads to choose the best measurement means which could provide useful information when combined with visual inspection. An equipment well adapted to easy-to-measure radionuclides as gamma emitters, such as gamma probe or on-site gamma spectrometry, is usually selected as a non-destructive assay. Coupled with spatial positions, processed on-site radiological data can be mapped. Data processing consists in mapping and kriging before a geostatistical analysis in order to identify the zones of interest to be targeted. Selected zones are not only linked to high level count rates but also to low level ones so that a pollution-free reference is known in the area. This data processing also enables to categorize waste types according to their origin and contamination levels. An expected volume of different waste then follows as well as the waste characterization equipments. In-depth investigations, e.g. core drillings and samplings, naturally ensue to aim at remediation optimization through the assessment of environmental impact. After clean-up operations, non-destructive assays as well as destructive samplings enable to check the effective clearance. Following this methodology in the present remediation work, results of the first non-destructive assay campaign highlighted a long-lived transuranic radionuclides contamination in the concrete flagstone. Successive non-destructive assays were then performed in the defined zones of interest. Count rates measured with a surface probe were first mapped. The best localization of destructive assays, i.e. core drillings at a 1 meter depth, came from this surface mapping followed by a geostatistical analysis. The concrete flagstone was totally removed. Then, the depth of soil to remove under the flagstone was optimized from the results of radiological activities measured in core drillings samples. A new surface mapping was then drawn after this partial soil excavation. The sand and demolition rubble samples, homogeneously constituted from the flagstone fragments, were analyzed by gamma spectrometry. Meanwhile, waste drums and other containers were also measured by gamma spectrometry and passive neutron measurement devices. All these results have brought miscellaneous pieces of information. In this context, major issues appear in terms of physical constraints such as the premises tininess as well as of soil sampling techniques and in terms of measurement performances assessment and the representativeness of homogeneous samples. The choice of radiological soil and waste characterization devices is described in the light of enhanced performances by keeping in mind radiation protection requirements and a willing to always optimize waste categories (very low level waste) and volume. The improvement of the characterization methods appears through this forty-year long work while sharing the feedback of encountered difficulties. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2021

Chapter 4: Chemical Recycling of PET

The circular economy of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) today is dominated by collection, sorting, cleaning, melting, and re-processing of transparent bottles via mechanical recycling. This has a better environmental impact as assessed by Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) (e.g. uses less non-renewable energy and produces less greenhouse gases) than production of virgin resin and is the preferred method of recycling wherever possible. However, not all PET products can be recycled this way and there is forecast to be a large shortfall between supply of high quality recycled PET (rPET) and the demands of large users who have made commitments to use more recycled resin over the next 5 - 10 years. Consequently, there is renewed interest, and increased activity, in chemical recycling, where waste PET is depolymerized, and the monomer(s) are purified and repolymerized into resin equivalent to that from petroleum-derived raw materials. The LCA is likely to be not as favorable as traditional mechanical recycling, but will likely be better than virgin PET and the process can be applied to a broader range of lower value wastes and thus promises to dramatically increase the overall recycling rate. In this chapter we will review the processes used in chemical recycling of PET, with the VolCat process from IBM as a detailed case study, followed by descriptions of the alternative technologies and emerging players in the field.

chemical recycling↗

DOE OSTI2023

Evaluating the carbon footprint of the integrated DBD‐plasma bi‐reforming unit via laboratory scale experiments and scaled‐up process modeling

Catalytic dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma reactor experiments were performed in a tubular glass reactor with a 2 mm gap at 550°C to facilitate the reaction kinetics of steam added dry reforming or bireforming. The best specific energy input obtained was 11.2 eV/molecule feed at CO 2 :CH 4 :H 2 O of 4.5:1:4.5 ratio and gas hour space velocity (GHSV) = 432 h −1 . This value was used to design a conceptual process and assess the environmental impact of methane steam reforming-based H 2 production 18.4 kmol/h CO 2 emission processing into H 2 :CO = 2 syngas, with an emphasis on the carbon footprint.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Offshore Gulf of Mexico Data Collection

Spatial data acquired from credible sources and created using analytical methods for the Gulf of Mexico. This collection contains information on public and industrial infrastructure, environmental, and socioeconomic factors. Much of these data were originally collected to measure the potential impacts of oil spills and the collection has continued to build into a robust and wide-ranging spatial database available on EDX Spatial.

data collection↗

DOE OSTI2024

Homomorphic Encryption for Electrical Metering Aggregation: Protecting the Privacy of Building Tenants

Electrical meters are devices that measure consumer electricity usage. The data collected by these meters is necessary for utility billing and electrical grid management but can also be used to assess the environmental impact of buildings. Prior research has found that unprotected metering data could potentially be used to infer some information about the behaviors of building tenants by detecting changes in electricity usage. For example, a period of low electricity usage could suggest that the tenants are not in the building. As smart metering becomes more common, there is a growing need for data privacy protections for metering data that do not negatively impact the quality and availability of data used for energy management and billing applications. To identify potential solutions, we developed a Python-based data aggregation platform to analyze the potential efficacy of privacy-enhancing technologies for energy metering applications. This platform aggregates groups of metering sites into virtual buildings, which could potentially detach changes in electrical activity from individual tenants, making it more difficult to track the activity of a specific tenant. To further protect data during analysis, this project utilizes homomorphic encryption as part of its initial approach. Homomorphic encryption offers a means of protecting energy consumption data while permitting mathematical operations to be performed without the need to know the data contents. This allows for data to be processed into usable statistics without revealing energy consumption information. A series of homomorphic encryption libraries were evaluated to determine their applicability and limitations in the context of metering data. The use of these techniques may help to reassure consumers and encourage further adoption of smart grid infrastructure.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2025

Digital Droplet PCR and Mesocosm-Based Methods to Evaluate Biocontainment Strategies in a Native Soil Ecosystem

Genetically modified industrial production microbes and their associated bioproducts have emerged as an integral component of a sustainable bioeconomy. However, the rapid development of these innovative technologies raises biosecurity concerns, namely, the risk of environmental escape. Thus, the realization of a bioeconomy hinges not only on the development and deployment of microbial production hosts, but also on the development of secure biosystems and biocontainment designs. Current laboratory-based biocontainment testing systems do not accurately reflect the complexities found in natural environments, necessitating an environmentally relevant analysis pipeline that allows for the detection of rare escapees within a complex soil microbiome and differentiation between closely related strains. To this end, we have developed an approach that utilizes soil mesocosms and integrated digital droplet PCR (ddPCR) system to evaluate the efficacy of novel biocontainment strategies. We demonstrate the utility of this approach by modeling contamination with industrial microbial chasses versus their biocontained counterparts. Here we demonstrate the broad utility of this system by highlighting findings from strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae that are contained with an inducible toxin anti-toxin system, strains of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 contained via gene knockout or toxin anti-toxin system, and strains of Escherichia coli that are contained via genomic recoding. We also show that ddPCR can be used to detect gene copies from E. coli equal to those counted by traditional spot plating assays. The resultant data demonstrates that this system has broad utility across diverse microbial chassis and biocontainment strategies and enables researchers to track the fate of our contaminating microbe with high sensitivity in the soil. The findings presented here support the use of this mesocosm-based approach to assess the environmental impact of industrial microbes and to validate biocontainment strategies.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2019

Design and implementation of a real-time underwater acoustic telemetry system for fish behavior study and environmental sensing

Underwater acoustic telemetry is an important tool for studying the behavior of aquatic animals and assessing the environmental impact of man-made structures such as water power turbines. However, current design of the acoustic telemetry system lacks the ability to transmit collected data continuously in real-time and requires manual retrieval of the recorded measurements, leading to a long delay of data retrieval, high operational cost associated with manpower as well as safety risk for the operators. In addition, there is no efficient way to monitor the status of the acoustic telemetry system, including acoustic transmitters and receivers. For example, if multiple receivers in an array fail, the detection efficiency could be significantly reduced. Herein, we developed a cloud-based, real-time underwater acoustic telemetry system that can be used to estimate behavior or survival of tagged aquatic animals and monitor environmental parameters in near-real-time (< 2 hours). The system incorporates microcontrollers and integrated circuits to create real-time data communication and processing units with a cloud-based service that processes the transmitted data stream to derive behavior and survival information of the tagged animals.

Yang, Yang↗

DOE OSTI2024

Plastic Parallel Pathways Platform - 4P Model

Global momentum is building towards a circular economy capable of keeping plastics in use and out of waste streams. Given that 79% of all plastic produced since 1950 has accumulated in landfills or the natural environment,rapid implementation of various end-of-life (EoL) management technologies will be needed to reach this target. However, it can be challenging to develop an effective plastic EoL strategy when the available options - chemical or molecular recycling, energy recovery, upcycling, downcycling, closed-loop (plastic-to-plastic) or open-loop (plastic-to-x) recycling, among others - can generate products ranging from low-grade to virgin-quality plastic and from fuels to value-added chemicals. We present a flexible material flow model capable of analyzing the effects of both plastic-to-plastic and plastic-to-x EoL management strategies on the U.S. PET economy. This Plastic Parallel Pathways Platform (4P) assesses the environmental impacts, costs, and circularity of a PET system in which waste is managed through six potential EoL pathways: landfill, incineration with energy recovery, pyrolysis to fuel oil, upcycling to glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), mechanical recycling to low-grade PET, and chemical recycling (glycolysis) to bottle-grade PET. We compare the pathways across multiple metrics using multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and then use a brute force algorithm to predict an optimal combination of EoL pathways to minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and costs and maximize circularity. This work highlights the need to implement a diverse portfolio of EoL strategies in parallel to enable a PET economy that meets environmental, economic, and circularity requirements simultaneously.

downcycling↗

DOE OSTI2023

A Sustainable Wind–Biogas Hybrid System for Remote Areas in Jordan: A Case Study of Mobile Hospital for a Zaatari Syrian Refugee Camp

Access to reliable and sustainable energy in remote areas remains a pressing global challenge, significantly affecting economic development and the quality of life. This study focuses on the implementation of fully off-grid wind–biogas hybrid power systems to address this issue, with a focus on remote healthcare camp facilities. This paper investigates the performance of a hybrid renewable energy system within the context of one of Jordan’s northern remote areas, the Zaatari Syrian Refugee Camp, assessing its efficiency and environmental impact by taking the Zaatari hospital as the case study. Simulations were conducted to evaluate system components, including wind turbines, biogas generators, and diesel generators. A comprehensive evaluation was conducted, encompassing both the operational efficiency of the system and its impact on the environment. This study also considered various scenarios (SC#), including grid availability and autonomy levels, to optimize system configurations. The techno-economic assessment employed the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) as a key performance indicator, and sensitivity analyses explored the impact of diesel costs and wind power fluctuations on the system. Additionally, environmental assessment was conducted to evaluate the environmental effects of hybrid systems, with a specific focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This investigation involved an examination of emissions in three different scenarios. The results indicate that the lowest LCOE that could be achieved was 0.0734 USD/kWh in SC#1 with 72.42% autonomy, whereas achieving 100% autonomy increased the LCOE to 0.1756 USD/kWh. Additionally, the results reveal that in scenarios SC#2 and SC#3, which have a higher proportion of diesel generator usage, there were elevated levels of NO x and CO 2 emissions. Conversely, in SC#1, which lacks diesel generators, emissions were notably lower. The proposed hybrid system demonstrates its potential to provide a reliable energy supply to healthcare facilities in remote regions, emphasizing both economic feasibility and environmental benefits. These findings contribute to informed decision making for sustainable energy solutions in similar contexts, promoting healthcare accessibility and environmental sustainability.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Cost Efficiency of Environmental DNA as Compared to Conventional Methods for Biodiversity Monitoring Purposes at Marine Energy Sites

The installation of marine energy systems may affect marine environments, and by extension, marine fish communities. Therefore, biomonitoring is an integral part of assessing impacts on species. Environmental DNA (eDNA) provides a noninvasive alternative to conventional monitoring surveys and the possibility of a more accurate assessment of species richness. Yet, its cost efficiency compared to traditional methods of monitoring is relatively unknown, especially when applied to monitoring around tidal, wave, and offshore wind energy installations. For this study, 202 peer-reviewed journal articles were dissected to inventory the diversity of supplies used for collecting and processing eDNA samples and to compile the average cost of eDNA surveys. Information collected included the type, volume, and brand of containers used in sampling; material, size, and brand of filters; and extraction methods. Cost information was gathered for the most common supplies, and a total cost was estimated for a hypothetical eDNA survey in Sequim Bay, WA, to compare with traditional methods of surveying such as beach seining and scuba surveys. The results showed a higher-than-expected diversity of supplies to collect and process eDNA samples. The most common supplies were 1 L Nalgene bottles at an average cost of 7.96 USD for collecting samples, 0.45 µm glass fiber Merck Millipore filters at an average cost of 1.51 USD for filtering samples, and the Qiagen DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit at 3.54 USD per sample for extracting DNA. When compared to beach seine and scuba surveys, eDNA surveys undertaken by senior researchers are less expensive for both initial surveys with all new materials as well as for follow-up surveys reusing some of the supplies. However, when surveys are done solely by students, eDNA surveys are more expensive than scuba surveys when no prior supplies are available and more than both beach seine and scuba surveys for follow-up surveys reusing supplies. In a professional sphere, where surveys are less often conducted by teams of students only, eDNA surveys are an effective and less-costly alternative to conventional methods. We anticipate that the development and refinement of eDNA methodology will continue to decrease surveying costs.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2023

Techno-Economic and life cycle assessment of standalone Single-Stream material recovery facilities in the United states

Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) are crucial players in achieving a circular economy. MRFs receive complex waste streams and separate valuable recyclables from these mixtures. This study conducts techno-economic analysis (TEA) to estimate the net present value (NPV) and life cycle assessment (LCA) to estimate different environmental impacts of a commercial scale standalone, single-stream MRF to assess the economic feasibility and environmental impacts of recovering valuable recyclables from an MRF processing 120,000 tonnes per year (t/y). The TEA employs a discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR) analysis over a 20-year facility lifetime, along with a sensitivity analysis on the impact of different operating and economic parameters. Results show that the total fixed cost of building the MRF facility is $\$ $23 MM, and the operating cost is $\$ $45.48/tonne. Further the NPV of the MRF can vary from $\$ $3.57 MM to $\$ $60 MM, while 100-year global warming potential can range from 5.98 to 8.53 kg carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-eq) per tonne of MSW. We have also found that MSW composition (arising from regional effects) significantly impacts costs, 100-year global warming potential, and other impact categories such as acidification potential, eutrophication potential, ecotoxicity, ozone depletion, photochemical oxidation, carcinogenic effects, and non-carcinogenic effects. Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis indicate that waste composition and market prices significantly impact the profitability of the MRF, and the waste composition mostly impacts global warming potential. Our analysis also indicates that facility capacity, fixed capital cost, and waste tipping fees are vital parameters that affect the economic viability of MRF operations.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Systems Analysis Approach to Polyethylene Terephthalate and Olefin Plastics Supply Chains in the Circular Economy: A Review of Data Sets and Models

The environmental and economic impacts of implementing a circular economy in plastic waste supply chains are not well understood. The proposed systems analysis framework assesses environmental, social, and economic impacts of plastic waste supply chains in a circular economy. The first objective of this article is to identify datasets, models and knowledge gaps associated with waste plastic supply chain processes, mainly in the U.S. Our literature review indicated that the best datasets exist for virgin plastic resin production, mechanical recycling, landfilling, and incineration, with materials recovery facility being intermediate, and with chemical recycling the lowest. The second objective of this article is to develop an illustrative application of the framework by conducting a preliminary systems analysis of PET bottles with closed-loop recycling. Here, the preliminary systems analysis of PET bottles utilized a linear programming optimization method. Our optimization model indicated that both chemical and mechanical recycling processes are needed to achieve a true circular economy of PET bottles with the least greenhouse gas emissions, specifically reductions of 24% when compared with the linear economy. Good quality and standardized life cycle assessment and techno-economic analysis studies are needed to better understand the environmental, economic, and social impacts of advanced sorting and chemical recycling technologies.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

Lignocellulosic Biomass-Derived Nanocellulose Crystals as Fillers in Membranes for Water and Wastewater Treatment: A Review

The improvement of membrane applications for wastewater treatment has been a focal point of research in recent times, with a wide variety of efforts being made to enhance the performance, integrity and environmental friendliness of the existing membrane materials. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are sustainable nanomaterials derived from microorganisms and plants with promising potential in wastewater treatment. Cellulose nanomaterials offer a satisfactory alternative to other environmentally harmful nanomaterials. However, only a few review articles on this important field are available in the open literature, especially in membrane applications for wastewater treatment. This review briefly highlights the circular economy of waste lignocellulosic biomass and the isolation of CNCs from waste lignocellulosic biomass for membrane applications. The surface chemical functionalization technique for the preparation of CNC-based materials with the desired functional groups and properties is outlined. Recent uses of CNC-based materials in membrane applications for wastewater treatment are presented. In addition, the assessment of the environmental impacts of CNCs, cellulose extraction, the production techniques of cellulose products, cellulose product utilization, and their end-of-life disposal are briefly discussed. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects for the development of CNC from waste biomass for application in wastewater treatment are discussed extensively. Finally, this review unraveled some important perceptions on the prospects of CNC-based materials, especially in membrane applications for the treatment of wastewater.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Ecologically inspired metrics for transitioning to a sustainable and resilient circular economy with application to multilayer plastic films

Current Circular Economy (CE) frameworks applied to product chains exhibit notable shortcomings. These include neglecting the resilience and robustness of design, requiring detailed economic and environmental data for impact assessment, and relying on qualitative rather than quantitative metrics capturing certain CE design aspects. In the current contribution, we addressed these shortcomings by developing an Ecologically inspired (Eco-inspired) Framework using the mathematical foundations of Ecological Network Analysis (ENA). While ENA metrics have previously found application in designing circular economies, particularly in Industrial Symbiosis (IS) networks, our adaptation tailors these metrics for use in product-level CE, recognizing the inherent distinctions between product-level CE and IS. Our Eco-inspired Framework comprises three key categories to provide holistic and granular-level metrics for designing product-level CE. The first set of metrics assesses circularity and resource efficiency. The second set gauges network intensity and robustness as complementary indicators ensuring a CE is both sustainable and resilient. The third group of metrics evaluates enhancement potential of CE strategies through introducing quantitative metrics for measuring the degree of closed-loop strategies and average circularity level of a CE design. The three comprehensive set of indicators within the Eco-inspired Framework uniquely captures various facets of circular design, whether originating from technological innovations and recovery improvement at the end of life (EoL), shifts in human consumption patterns, alterations in product design, or changes in business models. The framework’s application is tested in designing a CE for multilayer Polyethylene-Polyamide (PE-PA) films. Using the Eco-inspired Framework, we identified the best strategy for designing a resilient and sustainable CE for PE-PA films. A diverse set of EoL strategies along with a reduction in product consumption can improve circularity and resilience by 650% and 255%, respectively, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions by 90%. The framework minimizes trade-offs between sustainability and circularity goals and offers insights on how to enhance each strategy for achieving a resilient and sustainable CE for products.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗