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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Restoring Escaped Zincate in Rechargeable Alkaline Zinc Batteries with a Seed-in-Nanoshell Design

Rechargeable alkaline zinc batteries are promising candidates for safe and low-cost energy storage, but suffer from ZnO dissolution that causes irreversible active material loss and rapid capacity decay. Here, we report a seed-in-nanoshell ZnO anode architecture that mitigates dissolution by combining physical confinement with electrochemical restoration of dissolved zincate species. ZnO particles are encapsulated within an ion-sieving carbon nanoshell that restricts zincate diffusion, maintains electrical conductivity, and stabilizes repeated solid–solution–solid transformations. Silver (Ag) nanoparticles incorporated into the nanoshell act as zincophilic nucleation seeds, lowering the Zn deposition barrier and directing the redeposition of dissolved zincate back to metallic Zn during charging. This confinement-enabled restoration mechanism converts zincate dissolution from an irreversible loss pathway into a recoverable process, enabling improved performance under harsh test conditions. The anode also delivers 227.9 mAh g −1 at −40 °C. Finally, a scalable tens-of-gram synthesis of ZnO@Ag is demonstrated, underscoring the practical potential of this strategy for advanced aqueous zinc batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Mechanochemical in Situ Encapsulation of Palladium in Covalent Organic Frameworks

Palladium-encapsulated covalent organic frameworks (Pd/COFs) have garnered enormous attention in heterogeneous catalysis. However, the dominant ex situ encapsulation synthesis is tedious (multistep), time-consuming (typically 4 days or more), and involves the use of noxious solvents. Here we develop a mechanochemical in situ encapsulation strategy that enables the one-step, time-efficient, and environmentally benign synthesis of Pd/COFs. By ball milling COF precursors along with palladium acetate (Pd(OAc) 2 ) in one pot under air at room temperature, Pd/COF hybrids were readily synthesized within an hour, exhibiting high crystallinity, uniform Pd dispersion, and superb scalability up to gram scale. Moreover, this versatile strategy can be extended to the synthesis of three Pd/COFs. Remarkably, the resulting Pd/DMTP-TPB showcases extraordinary activity (96-99% yield in 1 h at room temperature) and broad substrate scope (>10 functionalized biaryls) for the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reaction of aryl bromides and arylboronic acids. Furthermore, the heterogeneity of Pd/DMTP-TPB is verified by recycling and leaching tests. Finally, the mechanochemical in situ encapsulation strategy disclosed herein paves a facile, rapid, scalable, and environmentally benign avenue to access metal/COF catalysts for efficient heterogeneous catalysis.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Engineered Membrane Vesicle Production via oprF or oprI Deletion Has Distinct Phenotypic Effects in Pseudomonas putida

Membrane vesicle (MV) production is a natural phenomenon in Gram-negative bacteria and represents an emerging synthetic biology tool for the secretion of biomolecules or bioproducts. Manipulation of membrane components has proven successful in enhancing MV production. However, the impact of membrane disruptions on strain fitness and protein composition warrants further investigation for the use of MVs in industrial bioprocesses. Here, we identify and characterize two genetic engineering strategies for inducing hypervesiculation-deletion of genes for the outer membrane porin OprF or the lipoprotein OprI-in the commonly used platform Pseudomonas putida KT2440. Deletion of oprI generated up to a 1.5-fold increase in MVs, larger MVs with a greater proportion of outer membrane proteins, and no significant impact on strain fitness compared to wild type. In contrast, deletion of oprF, relative to wild type, generated up to a 4-fold increase in MVs but diminished growth, permeabilized membranes, and increased cytosolic protein packaging. Both hypervesiculation phenotypes increased nontargeted and MV-targeted mNeonGreen extracellular signal by up to 6-fold, demonstrating vesiculation as a mechanism for protein secretion. Despite increased blebbing of MVs from gene deletions, proteins involved in membrane biosynthesis were not elevated relative to wild type. Overexpression of gpsA, which initiates glycerophospholipid biosynthesis, in the ΔoprF background improved the membrane integrity by 37% and maintained MV formation, highlighting the importance of membrane biosynthesis in restoring the membrane in hypervesiculating strains. Together, this study provides genetic engineering strategies with corresponding phenotypic outcomes toward providing a synthetic biology toolset for MV deployment in P. putida.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Interfacial dynamics mediate surface binding events on supramolecular nanostructures

The dynamic behavior of biological materials is central to their functionality, suggesting that interfacial dynamics could also mediate the activity of chemical events at the surfaces of synthetic materials. Here, we investigate the influence of surface flexibility and hydration on heavy metal remediation by nanostructures self-assembled from small molecules that are decorated with surface-bound chelators in water. We find that incorporating short oligo(ethylene glycol) spacers between the surface and interior domain of self-assembled nanostructures can drastically increase the conformational mobility of surface-bound lead-chelating moieties and promote interaction with surrounding water. In turn, we find the binding affinities of chelators tethered to the most flexible surfaces are more than ten times greater than the least flexible surfaces. Accordingly, nanostructures composed of amphiphiles that give rise to the most dynamic surfaces are capable of remediating thousands of liters of 50 ppb Pb 2+ -contaminated water with single grams of material. These findings establish interfacial dynamics as a critical design parameter for functional self-assembled nanostructures.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Colistin resistance plasmids dually enhance bacterial virulence and antibiotic resistance via surface polysaccharide biosynthesis

Plasmids carrying the mobilized colistin-resistance gene mcr-1 are prevalent among multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens, yet their broad impact on bacterial physiology and virulence remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that acquisition of an mcr-1 plasmid concurrently increases antimicrobial resistance and pathogenicity in Escherichia coli. On the same plasmid, the XRE-family transcriptional regulator EcaR cooperates with MCR-1 to activate the wec operon, driving biosynthesis of two surface polysaccharides: enterobacterial common antigen (ECA) and a high-molecular-weight O-chain. Expression of these surface polysaccharides increases bile resistance and virulence in a murine model and further elevates colistin resistance. MCR-1 enhances transcription of upstream genes in the wec operon, whereas EcaR directly activates an internal promoter (PwecE) to induce downstream gene expression. Thus, both components are required for surface polysaccharide expression, and deletion of either abolishes the phenotype. Genomic analysis of publicly available mcr plasmids reveals widespread co-occurrence of mcr-1 and ecaR on IncI2 and IncX4 plasmids, indicating their functional complementarity. These findings uncover a mechanism by which resistance plasmids remodel the bacterial surface, linking horizontal gene transfer to coordinated regulation of antimicrobial resistance and virulence.

Antimicrobial resistance↗
DOE OSTI2026

A photochargeable semiconductor for highly efficient dehydrogenative coupling of amines

The development of materials with high photocatalytic efficiency is essential for sustainable chemical transformations. Here, in this work, we introduce photochargeable zinc indium sulfide nanocrystals with notable charge storage capacity, enabling highly efficient photocatalytic dehydrogenative coupling of amines. Combined with a nickel cocatalyst, the nanocrystals deliver diamines and hydrogen at rates exceeding 120 mmol per gram of photocatalyst per hour, with > 95% selectivity and an apparent quantum efficiency of up to 39.4% under ambient conditions. The system exhibits excellent scalability, demonstrated by a reaction on a 20-g scale, and broad versatility in promoting amino acid ester coupling and polymerization reactions with concurrent hydrogen evolution. Mechanistic studies attribute the photocharging capability of zinc indium sulfide nanocrystals to in situ-generated trap states such as sulfur vacancies, which extend hydrogen production into the dark catalytic cycle and enhance the overall charge utilization efficiency. These findings position photochargeable semiconductors as promising platforms for a wide range of photocatalytic applications.

nanoscale devices↗
DOE OSTI2025

Atmospheric-pressure ammonia synthesis on AuRu catalysts enabled by plasmon-controlled hydrogenation and nitrogen-species desorption

The Haber–Bosch process for ammonia synthesis contributes up to ~3% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Plasmonic catalysts strongly concentrate light and can alter the reaction intermediates via out-of-equilibrium processes, providing the potential for an alternative, less-energy-intensive pathway to synthesize ammonia. Here, in this study, we show that gold-ruthenium (AuRu) bimetallic nanoparticles can synthesize ammonia at room temperature and pressure using visible light. We create AuRu alloys with varying compositions and achieve ammonia production rates of ~60 μmol per gram of catalyst bed per hour. In situ infrared spectroscopy reveals that light accelerates the hydrogenation of nitrogen intermediates compared to conventional thermal catalysis. Through computational modelling, we demonstrate that photo-excited electrons enable associative hydrogenation pathways for nitrogen activation rather than direct nitrogen–nitrogen bond breaking. This light-assisted mechanism requires both hydrogen and light working together to overcome the nitrogen activation barrier, mimicking how biological enzymes produce ammonia naturally and providing fundamental insights for developing sustainable, energy-efficient chemical synthesis.

Yuan, Lin [Stanford Univ., CA (United States)] (OR↗
DOE OSTI2025

Substantial and overlooked greenhouse gas emissions from deep Arctic lake sediment

Thermokarst lakes cause abrupt and sustained permafrost degradation and have the potential to release large quantities of ancient carbon to the atmosphere. Despite concerns about how lakes will affect the permafrost carbon feedback, the magnitude of carbon dioxide and methane emissions from deep permafrost soils remains poorly understood. Here we incubated a very deep sediment core (20 m) to constrain the potential productivity of thawed Yedoma and underlying Quaternary sand and gravel deposits. Through radiocarbon dating, sediment incubations and sediment facies classifications, we show that extensive permafrost thaw can occur beneath lakes on timescales of decades to centuries. Although it has been assumed that shallow, aerobic carbon dioxide production will dominate the climate impact of permafrost thaw, we found that anaerobic carbon dioxide and methane production from deep sediments was commensurate with aerobic production on a per gram carbon basis, and had double the global warming potential at warmer temperatures. Carbon release from deep Arctic sediments may thus have a more substantial impact on a changing climate than currently anticipated. These environments are presently overlooked in estimates of the permafrost carbon feedback.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Substantial oxygen loss and chemical expansion in lithium-rich layered oxides at moderate delithiation

Delithiation of layered oxide electrodes triggers irreversible oxygen loss, one of the primary degradation modes in lithium-ion batteries. However, the delithiation-dependent mechanisms of oxygen loss remain poorly understood. Here we investigate the oxygen non-stoichiometry in Li 1.18–x Ni 0.21 Mn 0.53 Co 0.08 O 2–δ electrodes as a function of Li content by using cycling protocols with long open-circuit voltage steps at varying states of charge. Surprisingly, we observe substantial oxygen loss even at moderate delithiation, corresponding to 2.5, 4.0 and 7.6 ml O 2 per gram of Li 1.18–x Ni 0.21 Mn 0.53 Co 0.08 O 2–δ after resting at upper capacity cut-offs of 135, 200 and 265 mAh g −1 for 100 h. Our observations suggest an intrinsic oxygen instability consistent with predictions of high oxygen activity at intermediate potentials versus Li/Li + . In addition, we observe a large chemical expansion coefficient with respect to oxygen non-stoichiometry, which is about three times greater than those of classical oxygen-deficient materials such as fluorite and perovskite oxides. Furthermore, our work challenges the conventional wisdom that deep delithiation is a necessary condition for oxygen loss in layered oxide electrodes and highlights the importance of calendar ageing for investigating oxygen stability.

Atomistic models↗
DOE OSTI2025

A bipartite bacterial virulence factor targets the complement system and neutrophil activation

Abstract The complement system and neutrophils constitute the two main pillars of the host innate immune defense against infection by bacterial pathogens. Here, we identify T-Mac, a novel virulence factor of the periodontal pathogen Treponema denticola that allows bacteria to evade both defense systems. We show that T-Mac is expressed as a pre-protein that is cleaved into two functional units. The N-terminal fragment has two immunoglobulin-like domains and binds with high affinity to the major neutrophil chemokine receptors FPR1 and CXCR1, blocking N -formyl-Met-Leu-Phe- and IL-8-induced neutrophil chemotaxis and activation. The C-terminal fragment functions as a cysteine protease with a unique proteolytic activity and structure, which degrades several components of the complement system, such as C3 and C3b. Murine infection studies further reveal a critical T-Mac role in tissue damage and inflammation caused by bacterial infection. Collectively, these results disclose a novel innate immunity-evasion strategy, and open avenues for investigating the role of cysteine proteases and immunoglobulin-like domains of gram-positive and -negative bacterial pathogens.

Kurniyati, Kurni↗
DOE OSTI2026

Elemental analysis of air-sensitive frozen molten salt samples using an inert transfer chamber for LIBS/LA-ICP-TOF-MS analysis

A novel inert sample transfer system was developed and employed to enable, for the first time, the analysis of air-sensitive salt samples in a two-volume ablation cell using simultaneous laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and laser ablation (LA)-inductively coupled plasma (ICP)-time-of-flight (TOF)-mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. Molten salts are of growing interest as a medium for advanced nuclear reactors and nuclear fuel reprocessing technologies continue to be developed around their use. However, compositional analysis of molten salt samples can be challenging because of their air-sensitive nature and varying solubilities leading to inaccurate measurements when digested. LA-based analysis provides an alternate method to digestion and can provide rapid elemental information with little sample preparation. In this study, LIBS and LA-ICP-TOF-MS were used to analyze the Ce content in frozen salt samples taken from a series of electrochemical experiments. Calibrations were built for each technique, and the resulting limits of detection for Ce were estimated to be 107 and 58 µg g −1 for LIBS and LA-ICP-TOF-MS, respectively. Test samples from the electrochemical experiments were analyzed using these calibrations. The results matched bulk digestion-based ICP-optical emission spectroscopy values, and daily trends in Ce concentration changes were identified. Additionally, the LIBS and LA-ICP-TOF-MS analysis was demonstrated for identifying microgram per gram levels of components and detecting trace contaminants. The impurities detected by LIBS included Al, Mg, Ca, and Na. The impurities detected by LA-ICP-TOF-MS included W, Ag, Al, Fe, Ni, Mo, Nd, Sm, Th, and U.

Andrews, Hunter B. [Oak Ridge National Laboratory ↗
DOE OSTI2026

Single particle – MC-ICP-MS for isotopic analysis of uranium particles

Single particle – multi-collector – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (SP-MC-ICP-MS) was employed to measure a suspension of 1 µm U3O8 particles (∼1.3 pg total U/particle) to determine their individual isotopic compositions of 234U/238U, 235U/238U, and 236U/238U. The effects of different detector combinations for 235U and 238U, including secondary electron multipliers (SEM) and Faraday detectors (1011 and 1013 Ω amplifiers), were explored for accuracy and precision optimization on the observed 235U/238U. The minor isotopic ratios (i.e., 234U/238U and 236U/238U) were analyzed such that the 234U and 236U were monitored on SEM detectors and the 238U was monitored on a Faraday (1011 Ω) detector. Various integration times (5, 10, 25, and 50 ms) were investigated in all detector configurations to gain a better understanding of their impact on sensitivity, accuracy, and precision. For 235U/238U ratios of 1 µm U3O8 particles, a dual Faraday detector measurement with 1011 Ω was the optimal choice; measurement of 1021 particles yielded an average 235U/238U ratio of 0.00170 (14), a −1.8% relative difference (% RD) from the reference value. The minor isotopic compositions were determined to be 0.0000070 (14) and 0.0000758 (48) for the 234U/238U and 236U/238U, respectively. These measurements correspond to <8% and <1% RD from their reference value for the 234U/238U and 236U/238U, respectively. SP-MC-ICP-MS was also able to provide insight into measurement sensitivity. In these individual particles, merely 15 and 165 atto-grams (ag) of 234U and 236U were present (calculated). Initial limits of detection for SP-MC-ICP-MS were determined to be ∼1.0 ag (when measured via SEM detectors). This valuable approach is applicable to areas including nuclear forensics, nuclear safeguards, and geochemical analysis, which require high-precision measurements of uranium within micron-sized particles.

Manard, Benjamin [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000207400627)↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dry Deactivation of Sodium Metal in a Molten LiCl-KCl-CsCl-NaCl System

An experimental study was performed with the objective of investigating and characterizing a dry technique for deactivation of sodium metal in a molten salt system. The study was performed in three parts. First, proof-of-principle testing of the technique was performed at bench scale. It involved loading and melting tens of grams of clean sodium metal atop a pool of LiCl-KCl-CsCl eutectic at ∼300°C and then adding ammonium chloride particles while mixing. The ammonium chloride reacted with sodium to form sodium chloride and nitrogen/hydrogen off-gases. The sodium chloride assimilated into the salt pool, forming a quaternary salt mixture of LiCl-KCl-CsCl-NaCl. The proof-of-principle testing repeatedly exhibited complete deactivation of the loaded sodium metal. Second, characterization of a LiCl-KCl-CsCl-NaCl system was performed using differential scanning calorimetry to produce a partial phase diagram of LiCl-KCl-CsCl eutectic versus NaCl, which identified the liquidus, solidus, and two-phase regions of the quaternary system. Third, the dry deactivation technique was demonstrated at kg-scale in an inert atmosphere radiological glovebox with sodium metal that was previously separated in the same glovebox from uranium metal in unirradiated blanket elements for the Fermi-1 nuclear reactor. The quaternary salt product at the end of the demonstration was sampled and showed complete deactivation of the sodium metal. Here, in short, this study qualified a technique to completely deactivate batches of sodium metal in the absence of air or water. While this study focused on the deactivation of sodium metal, including bond sodium from unirradiated blanket elements, the technique is applicable to other sources of sodium metal, such as sodium metal from batteries. Furthermore, the technique could also be extended to other alkali metal systems, including lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and mixtures thereof.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Combatting melioidosis with chemical synthetic lethality

Burkholderia thailandensishas emerged as a nonpathogenic surrogate forBurkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, and an important Gram-negative model bacterium for studying the biosynthesis and regulation of secondary metabolism. We recently reported that subinhibitory concentrations of trimethoprim induce vast changes in both the primary and secondary metabolome ofB. thailandensis. In the current work, we show that the folate biosynthetic enzyme FolE2 is permissive under standard growth conditions but essential forB. thailandensisin the presence of subinhibitory doses of trimethoprim. Reasoning that FolE2 may serve as an attractive drug target, we screened for and identified ten inhibitors, including dehydrocostus lactone (DHL), parthenolide, and β-lapachone, all of which are innocuous individually but form a chemical-synthetic lethal combination with subinhibitory doses of trimethoprim. We show that DHL is a mechanism-based inhibitor of FolE2 and capture the structure of the covalently inhibited enzyme using X-ray crystallography. In vitro, the combination of subinhibitory trimethoprim and DHL is more potent than Bactrim, the current standard of care against melioidosis. Moreover, unlike Bactrim, this combination does not affect the growth of most commensal and beneficial gut bacteria tested, thereby providing a degree of specificity againstB. pseudomallei. Our work provides a path for identifying antimicrobial drug targets and for utilizing binary combinations of molecules that form a toxic cocktail based on metabolic idiosyncrasies of specific pathogens.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
DOE OSTI2025

A periplasmic zinc capture protein enhances the resistance of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to nutritional immunity

During microbial infection, mammalian hosts reduce the availability of free metals such as zinc in a process known as nutritional immunity. Pathogens counteract nutritional immunity by expressing gene products that enhance growth in metal-limited conditions. One of the most transcriptionally induced genes in zinc-limited Neisseria gonorrhoeae , ngo1049, encodes a DUF4198 family protein we have named Zcp. This family of proteins is widely distributed in Gram-negative bacteria. Here, we provide the first structural, biochemical, and functional characterization of a DUF4198 protein. Zcp is a periplasmic, homodimeric substrate-binding protein (SBP), which binds one zinc ion per subunit with submicromolar affinity. We identified a zinc binding pocket in each subunit, composed of three histidine residues. Zcp enables maximal growth of N. gonorrhoeae in zinc-limited conditions but is dispensable for zinc uptake, in contrast to the cluster A-I SBP ZnuA, which is required for zinc import. The growth defect of zcp mutant N. gonorrhoeae is rescued by zinc supplementation. Zcp associates with proteins with roles in maintaining cell envelope integrity, and N. gonorrhoeae lacking zcp is more sensitive to envelope-targeting antimicrobials. Zcp enables infectivity of human epithelial cells and neutrophils by zinc-limited N. gonorrhoeae . We conclude that N. gonorrhoeae produces Zcp to buffer periplasmic zinc, which enables ZnuA to balance import of different metals and ensures the bioavailability of zinc for extracytoplasmic zinc-requiring proteins, as part of the coordinated response to host-imposed nutritional immunity.

Liyayi, Ian K. [Department of Microbiology, Immuno↗
DOE OSTI2026

Pyrodictium abyssi AbpX reveals a calcium-responsive family of microbial biomatrix proteins that form thermostable hydrogels

Evolutionary pressure on microbial communities propagating under extreme environmental conditions often results in unique structural adaptations to promote cell survival. In this work, we report an investigation of AbpX, a biomatrix protein identified in cultures of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrodictium abyssi. Under ex vivo and in vitro conditions, AbpX assembles into a paracrystalline lattice composed of semiflexible fibrils. CryoEM analysis of recombinant AbpX fibrils reveals that the precursor protein polymerizes through donor strand complementation (DSC), a process previously reported for chaperone-usher fimbriae in Gram-negative bacteria. Unlike the latter DSC protein polymers, AbpX undergoes chaperone-free polymerization in the presence of calcium ions, which are sequestered at the donor strand-acceptor groove interface between protomers in the fibril. Using a combination of cryoEM and crystallographic information, a structural model is proposed for the AbpX lattice that provides insight into its potential role in biofilm formation. These findings suggest that calcium ion coordination may contribute to fibril assembly and preorganize fibrils for incorporation into the protein lattice. Bioinformatic analysis indicates that AbpX exemplifies a distinct and broadly distributed clade of calcium ion responsive biomatrix proteins within the TasA superfamily that can be fabricated into hydrogel biomaterials in vitro under environmentally benign conditions.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Development of a microwave-assisted downdraft moving-bed gasifier for continuous processing of lignite and biomass chars

This research illustrates a microwave-assisted downdraft moving-bed gasifier for the first time. Such design enables continuous solid gasification process. An adjustable auger was applied to control the solid removal rate and the gas-solid interaction time. Both lignite and biomass chars were investigated to determine the capability of the current system for low-tar feedstocks with different densities. Here, the presented reactor design was able to operate continuously for 3 hours and 20 minutes under 700 ℃ and atmospheric pressure, with air as the gasifying agent. For yellow pine char, the processing rate could reach 34.1 grams per hour with decent syngas production. The downdraft moving-bed design shows better cold gas and syngas production efficiencies compared to the common fixed-bed design, due to controllable residence time and more homogeneous microwave heating. The limitations of the current design and the direction of novel microwave-assisted chemical reactor design were discussed. This novel reactor design provides a way to improve the efficiency of microwave-assisted gasification process and shows its potential to be incorporated into other established chemical reaction processes as a modular add-on.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Estimating Potential Tritium and Plutonium Production in North Korea’s Experimental Light Water Reactor

Our work explores North Korea's 100 MW-th Experimental Light Water Reactor (ELWR) and its potential contributions to the country's nuclear weapons program. Built at the Yongbyon Nuclear Research Center, the ELWR began operations in October 2023 and represents North Korea's first attempts at a light-water reactor using domestically-enriched, ceramic fuel. Our study examines possible configurations for energy, tritium, and tritium-plutonium co-production. Assuming a single-batch core, the ELWR can be used to annually produce 48-82 grams of tritium, which can supply 2-4 new boosted warheads each year, up to a maximum arsenal of 88-150 warheads total. Concurrent production of tritium and weapon-grade plutonium is also possible but requires reprocessing of spent ceramic fuel. Furthermore, these findings underscore how North Korea's nuclear capabilities may be advanced through the ELWR's dual-use potential.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗