Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Evaporation of a Reactive Nanofluid Sessile Drop: Capturing Rapid Emergence of Surface Crystals with In Situ Synchrotron X-ray Diffraction

Mechanisms for surface pattern formation from evaporation of a reactive nanofluid sessile drop are not well understood. In contrast to the coffee-ring effect from inert particles, rapid chemical and morphological transformation of reactive nanoparticles upon rapid evaporative drying are challenging to probe experimentally. Here, using grazing-incidence X-ray surface scattering, the nanostructure of nascent surface patterns has been probed as a ZnO nanofluid sessile drop rapidly dries. The high temporal resolution enabled by the high flux of synchrotron X-rays allows the observation of the emergence of Zn(OH) 2 surface crystals from the onset of evaporation and their rapid evolution into the final residual surface pattern, via transient layered complexes evident from the temporary appearance of X-ray diffraction peaks preceding Zn(OH) 2 formation. The results offer mechanistic insights of morphogenesis of surface patterns from evaporation-induced self-assembly and self-organization of reactive nanofluids, previously untenable using other experimental methods.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

X-Ray Performance of Critical-angle Transmission Grating Prototypes for the Arcus Mission

Arcus is a proposed Explorer Class soft X-ray grating spectrometer. It aims to explore cosmic feedback by mapping hot gases within and between galaxies and galaxy clusters and characterizing jets and winds from supermassive black holes and to investigate the dynamics of protoplanetary disks and stellar accretion. Arcus features 12 m focal-length grazing-incidence silicon pore optics (SPO) developed for the Athena mission. Critical-angle transmission (CAT) gratings efficiently disperse high diffraction orders onto CCDs. We report new and improved X-ray performance results for Arcus-like CAT gratings, including a record resolving power for two coaligned CAT gratings. Multiple Arcus prototype grating facets were illuminated by an SPO at the PANTER facility. The facets consist of 32 × 32.5 mm 2 patterned silicon membranes, bonded to metal frames. The bonding angle is adjusted according to the measured average tilt angle of the grating bars in the membrane. Two simultaneously illuminated facets show a minor broadening of the Al-K α doublet in the 18th and 21st orders with the best-fit record effective resolving power of ${R}_{G}\approx {1.3}_{-0.5}^{+\infty }\times {10}^{4}$ (3σ), about three to four times the Arcus requirement. We measured the diffraction efficiency of quasi-fully illuminated gratings at O-K wavelengths in orders 4–7 in an Arcus-like configuration and compare results with synchrotron spot measurements. After corrections for geometrical effects and bremsstrahlung continuum, we find agreement between full and spot illumination at the two different facilities, as well as with the models used for Arcus effective area predictions. We find that these flight-like gratings meet the diffraction efficiency and greatly exceed the resolving power Arcus requires.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Orientational analysis of atomic pair correlations in nanocrystalline indium oxide thin films

The application of grazing-incidence total X-ray scattering (GITXS) for pair distribution function (PDF) analysis using >50 keV X-rays from synchrotron light sources has created new opportunities for structural characterization of supported thin films with high resolution. Compared with grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering, which is only useful for highly ordered materials, GITXS/PDFs expand such analysis to largely disordered or nanostructured materials by examining the atomic pair correlations dependent on the direction relative to the surface of the supporting substrate. A characterization of nanocrystalline In 2 O 3 -derived thin films is presented here with in-plane-isotropic and out-of-plane-anisotropic orientational ordering of the atomic structure, each synthesized using different techniques. The atomic orientations of such films are known to vary based on the synthetic conditions. Here, an azimuthal orientational analysis of these films using GITXS with a single incident angle is shown to resolve the markedly different orientations of the atomic structures with respect to the planar support and the different degrees of long-range order, and hence, the terminal surface chemistries. It is anticipated that orientational analysis of GITXS/PDF data will offer opportunities to extend structural analyses of thin films by providing a means to qualitatively determine the major atomic orientation within nanocrystalline and, eventually, non-crystalline films.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Grazing-incidence diffraction reveals cellulose and pectin organization in hydrated plant primary cell wall

Abstract The primary cell wall is highly hydrated in its native state, yet many structural studies have been conducted on dried samples. Here, we use grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) with a humidity chamber, which enhances scattering and the signal-to-noise ratio while keeping outer onion epidermal peels hydrated, to examine cell wall properties. GIWAXS of hydrated and dried onion reveals that the cellulose ( $$110/1\overline{1}0$$ 110 / 1 1 ¯ 0 ) lattice spacing decreases slightly upon drying, while the (200) lattice parameters are unchanged. Additionally, the ( $$110/1\overline{1}0$$ 110 / 1 1 ¯ 0 ) diffraction intensity increases relative to (200). Density functional theory models of hydrated and dry cellulose microfibrils corroborate changes in crystalline properties upon drying. GIWAXS also reveals a peak that we attribute to pectin chain aggregation. We speculate that dehydration perturbs the hydrogen bonding network within cellulose crystals and collapses the pectin network without affecting the lateral distribution of pectin chain aggregates.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Hybrid height and slope figuring method for grazing-incidence reflective optics

Grazing-incidence reflective optics are commonly used in synchrotron radiation and free-electron laser facilities to transport and focus the emitted X-ray beams. To preserve the imaging capability at the diffraction limit, the fabrication of these optics requires precise control of both the residual height and slope errors. However, all the surface figuring methods are height based, lacking the explicit control of surface slopes. Although our preliminary work demonstrated a one-dimensional (1D) slope-based figuring model, its 2D extension is not straightforward. In this study, a novel 2D slope-based figuring method is proposed, which employs an alternating objective optimization on the slopes in the x - and y -directions directly. An analytical simulation revealed that the slope-based method achieved smaller residual slope errors than the height-based method, while the height-based method achieved smaller residual height errors than the slope-based method. Therefore, a hybrid height and slope figuring method was proposed to further enable explicit control of both the height and slopes according to the final mirror specifications. An experiment to finish an elliptical-cylindrical mirror using the hybrid method with ion beam figuring was then performed. Both the residual height and slope errors converged below the specified threshold values, which verified the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed ideas.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

M-STAR: Magnetism second target advanced reflectometer at the Spallation Neutron Source

M-STAR is a next generation polarized neutron reflectometer with advanced capabilities. A new focusing guide concept is optimized for samples with dimensions down to a millimeter range. A proposed hybrid pulse-skipping chopper will enable experiments at constant geometry at one incident angle in a broad range of wavevector transfer Q up to 0.3 A –1 for specular, off-specular, and GISANS measurements. M-STAR will empower nanoscience and spintronics studies routinely on small samples (~2 × 2 mm 2 ) and of atomic-scale thickness using versatile experimental conditions of magnetic and/or electric fields, light, and temperature applied in situ to novel complex device-like nanosystems with multiple buried interfaces. M-STAR will enable improved grazing incidence diffraction measurements, as a surface-sensitive depth-resolved probe of, e.g., the out-of-plane component of atomic magnetic moments in ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and more complex structures as well as in-plane atomic-scale structures inaccessible with contemporary diffractometry and reflectometry. New horizons will be opened by the development of an option to probe near-surface dynamics with inelastic grazing incidence scattering in the time-of-flight mode. These novel options in combination with ideally matched parameters of the second target station will place M-STAR in the world’s leading position for high resolution polarized reflectometry.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Matrix polysaccharides affect preferred orientation of cellulose crystals in primary cell walls

The spatial organization and interactions of constituent components influence cell growth and determine physical and chemical properties of the cell wall, including its rigidity, flexibility, and degradability. Elucidating the interactions between cell wall polysaccharides is crucial for advancing our knowledge of how cell walls are assembled and for designing approaches to efficiently break down cell walls to produce renewable energy and biomaterials. Here, we investigated the effect of defects in the biosynthesis of cell wall components on the nanoscale organization of cellulose in primary cell walls through grazing incidence wide angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) measurements of hypocotyls of wild type Arabidopsis thaliana and of cellulose, pectin, and xyloglucan (hemicellulose) deficient mutants. GIWAXS reveals changes in lattice spacings, coherence lengths, and relative crystalline content for cellulose between wild type and mutant plants. In addition, X-ray pole figures constructed using GIWAXS and X-ray diffraction (XRD) rocking scans quantify an emerging measure of cellulose organization, the degree of preferred orientation (texture) of cellulose crystals with respect to the cell wall plane. Comparing X-ray pole figures from pectin-deficient and xyloglucan-deficient mutants to that of wild type plants reveals that cellulose texture is disrupted in pectin-deficient mutants, but not in xyloglucan mutants. Furthermore, our results indicate that a deficiency of pectin during cell wall biosynthesis alters cellulose organization in plant cell walls.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Grazing-Incidence Texture Tomography and Diffuse Reflectivity Tomography of an Organic Semiconductor Device Array

The use of grazing-incidence scattering methods for the characterization of 2D patterned organic thin films is limited due to the elongated 1D footprint of the X-ray beam on the sample. However, this characteristic feature can be turned into an advantage, when combined with tomographic reconstruction. In this pilot study we show, how the use of a chosen texture reflection and a diffuse reflectivity signal can each provide 2D images of the deposits, simultaneously revealing the organic film's crystal orientation and the location of the metal electrodes in a field-effect transistor structure from a single sequence of diffraction images.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Quantitative analysis of dislocations in 4H-SiC wafers using synchrotron X-ray topography with ultra-high angular resolution

Utilization of an Si(331) beam conditioner together with an Si(111) double-crystal monochromator (DCM) enables the angular resolution of synchrotron X-ray topography to be increased by an order of magnitude compared with grazing-incidence topography or back-reflection topography conducted with the DCM alone. This improved technique with extremely small beam divergence is referred to as synchrotron X-ray plane-wave topography (SXPWT). This study demonstrates that the rocking curve width of 4H-SiC 0008 in PWT is only 2.5" and thus the lattice distortion at the scale of 1" will significantly affect the diffracted intensity. This work reports the ultra-high angular resolution in SXPWT which enables detailed probing of the lattice distortion outside the dislocation core in 4H-SiC, where the sign of the Burgers vector can be readily determined through comparison with ray-tracing simulations.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Thin Film Synthesis of SrZn2P2 with SrI2 Post-Annealing for Enhanced Crystallinity and Optoelectronic Quality

Ternary Zintl phosphides are promising light-absorbing semiconductors for thin-film optoelectronic applications, but strategies for controlling their microstructure and optoelectronic quality remain underexplored. Here, we report the synthesis of phase-pure SrZn2P2 thin films using radio-frequency co-sputtering in a PH3 + Ar atmosphere and investigate the impact of post-growth processing on their structural and optical properties. Grazing-incidence X-ray scattering and Raman spectroscopy confirm the formation of crystalline SrZn2P2 films over a finite compositional window. Optical measurements reveal clear absorption near the direct-band-gap energy (~1.8 eV) and near-band-edge photoluminescence. Further, we have studied the effects of chemically compatible halide-assisted annealing. It is found that SrI2 treatments lead to pronounced grain growth and reduced diffraction peak broadening while preserving phase purity, in contrast to rapid thermal or forming-gas annealing. Notably, annealing with SrI2 at 450 degrees C significantly enhances both the intensity and spatial uniformity of the photoluminescence, thus connecting the observed microstructural consolidation with improved radiative recombination. Our study demonstrates that halide-assisted annealing provides an effective pathway for microstructural control in SrZn2P2 thin films and highlights a generalizable processing strategy for advancing Zintl phosphide semiconductors toward optoelectronic applications.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Increased spatial coherence length from an asymmetric crystal reflection at grazing exit

Coherent X-ray imaging is an active field at synchrotron sources. The images rely on the available coherent flux over a limited field of view. At many synchrotron beamlines a double-crystal monochromator (DCM) is employed in a standard nondispersive arrangement. For coherent diffraction imaging it is advantageous to increase the available field of view by increasing the spatial coherence length (SCL) of a beam exiting such a DCM. Here, Talbot interferometry data together with ray-tracing simulations for a (+ − − +) four-reflection experimental arrangement are presented, wherein the first two reflections are in the DCM and the final fourth reflection is asymmetric at grazing exit. Analyses of the interferometry data combined with the simulations show that compared with the beam exiting the DCM a gain of 76% in the SCL was achieved, albeit with a factor of 20 reduction in flux density, which may not be a severe penalty at a synchrotron beamline. Previous efforts reported in the literature to increase the SCL that employed asymmetric crystal diffraction at grazing incidence are also discussed. A much reduced SCL is found presently in simulations wherein the same asymmetric crystal is set for grazing incidence instead of grazing exit. In addition, the present study is compared and contrasted with two other means of increasing the SCL. These are (i) focusing the beam onto an aperture to act as a secondary source, and (ii) allowing the beam to propagate in vacuum an additional distance along the beamline.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Etched Silicon Planar CRL Optics for the High-Energy X-ray Diffraction Beamlines 11-ID-B and 11-ID-C at the APS

We report the focusing of high-energy X-rays is most commonly achieved by commercially available compound refractive lenses (CRL), which are added together in larger structures. There is a need for high-energy X-ray beamlines to enable focusing in only one dimension down to a few micrometers to study layered materials and thin films. High-energy X-rays above 50 keV require often 100 lenses or more, therefore it is more efficient to etch the complete arrays of lenses into a monolithic substrate like a silicon wafer. Custom lens arrays were fabricated for the high-energy x-ray beamlines 11-ID-B, and 11-ID-C at the Argonne National Laboratory. The fabrication required tuning parameters of the Bosch process to optimize the etching of deep vertical sidewalls at a reasonable speed without overheating. The beamline 11-ID-B is equipped with lens arrays of 85-110 lenses for 59 keV and 190-250 lenses for 87 keV photon energy, focusing the beam vertically below 5.0 µm at the sample positions between 1600 mm to 2100 mm. 11-ID-C has received arrays of 435 lenses that focus 106 keV X-rays to a vertical height of 2.0 µm at the sample position. In both cases, the flux density gain in the focal spot is larger than a factor of 20, relative to using slits to cut the beam size. The lens setup is permanently installed and can be moved in and out of the beam during the experiment without further alignment. The lenses have enabled operando diffraction studies on interfaces in batteries and the development of pair distribution function (PDF) analysis using grazing incidence geometry.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Correlation of Processing and Structure in an Ethylene‐Glycol Side‐Chain Modified Polythiophene via Combined X‐Ray Scattering and 4D Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy

The results of a combined grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) and 4D scanning transmission microscopy (4D-STEM) analysis of the effects of thermal processing on poly(3[2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethoxy]-methylthiophene-2,5-diyl) are reported, a conjugated semiconducting polymer used as the active layer in organic electrochemical transistor devices. GIWAXS provides a measure of overall crystallinity in the film, while 4D-STEM produces real-space maps of the morphology and orientation of individual crystallites along with their spatial extent and distribution. The sensitivity of the 4D-STEM detector allows for collection of electron diffraction patterns at each position in an image scan while limiting the imparted electron dose to below the damage threshold. In conclusion, the effects of heat treatment on the distribution and type of crystallites present in the films is determined.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

A new route to obtain fluorescence X-ray absorption spectra of compounds and to remove the self-absorption induced nonlinearity in the spectra

A new route to obtain fluorescence X-ray absorption spectra of compounds and to remove the self-absorption induced nonlinearity in the spectra is described. The fluorescent intensity If is linearly proportional to the absorption coefficient μ. For studies of surface structures around an element (κ) the fluorescence detection is often the mode of choice. However, the measurement may suffer from a self-absorption (SA) effect which nonlinearly distorts the spectra. The effect is severe when κ is concentrated or the measurements are carried out in certain geometries. Here, the correlations among emission events in compounds are examined following resonance X-ray core-electron excitation within κ. Under conditions leading to SA, If emitted from κ apparently has a conjugated relationship with the fluorescent intensities simultaneously emitted from other elements (ξ). Normalizing the former (κ) by the latter (ξ) will largely remove SA effects and reduce this nonlinear problem to a tractable linear problem. This does result in a moderate reduction of the spectral amplitude due to the so-called secondary emission from ξ excited by the emission from κ. Nonetheless, the resulting spectra will allow one to accurately determine bond distances and disorder and, in some respects, can be superior to spectra obtained via the absorption channel. For μξ < μκ and grazing incidence geometry, the amplitude reduction can be small and simple normalization is sufficient to restore the spectral integrity with remarkable accuracy. This has been instrumental in unravelling the surface and subsurface structures around cations in amorphous Ga–In–O and Zn–Sn–O films which are otherwise inaccessible due to severe SA effects. This method has also been applied to several samples with μξ ≃ μκ to examine its applicability. For these samples, the amplitude reduction is 12 ± 4% versus their standards for the data measured with the classical 45°/45° geometry. This experimental method is easy to implement. Since If from κ and ξ are measured by the same detector system, it is also superior to other methods in removing systematic errors such as detector system nonlinearity, electronic noise, and some beam instabilities, and in removing spectral imperfections due to, for example, SA effects, diffraction effects and sample inhomogeneity. The distortions resulting from the latter can be severe in the spectra measured in transmission mode.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

GdWN 3 is a nitride perovskite

Nitride perovskites ABN3 are an emerging and highly underexplored class of materials that are of interest due to their intriguing calculated ferroelectric, optoelectronic, and other functional properties. Incorporating novel A-site cations is one strategy to tune and expand such properties; for example, Gd 3+ is compelling due to its large magnetic moment, potentially leading to multiferroic behavior. However, the theoretically predicted ground state of GdWN 3 was a non-perovskite monoclinic structure. Here, we experimentally show that GdWN 3-y crystallizes in a perovskite structure. High-throughput combinatorial sputtering with activated nitrogen is employed to synthesize thin films of Gd 2-x W x N 3-y O y with oxygen content y < 0.05. Ex situ annealing crystallizes a polycrystalline perovskite phase in a narrow composition window near x = 1. LeBail fits of synchrotron grazing incidence wide angle x-ray scattering data are consistent with a perovskite ground-state structure. Refined density functional theory calculations that included antiferromagnetic configurations confirm that the ground-state structure of GdWN 3 is a distorted Pnma perovskite with antiferromagnetic ordering, in contrast to prior predictions. Initial property measurements find that GdWN 3-y is paramagnetic down to T = 2 K with antiferromagnetic correlations and that the absorption onset depends on cation stoichiometry. This work provides an important path toward both the rapid expansion of the emerging family of nitride perovskites and understanding their potential multiferroic properties.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Lamellar and Hexagonal Assemblies of PEG-Grafted Silver Nanoparticles: Implications for Plasmonics and Photonics

Assembly of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) grafted with thiolated poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG-SH) with various molecular weights is reported. Synchrotron-based X-ray surface-sensitive diffraction methods are used to determine the nature of two-dimensional (2D) assemblies at liquid/vapor interfaces, and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is used to monitor the three-dimensional (3D) assemblies in bulk suspensions. We find that assembly can be induced either by the addition of K 2 CO 3 or polyacrylic acid (PAA) to the PEG-AgNP aqueous suspensions. The addition of K 2 CO 3 induces a 2D hexagonal structure at the liquid/vapor interface and a 3D hexagonal columnar structure in solutions, where the columns consist of tethered PEG-AgNP chains. On the other hand, the addition of PAA leads to the formation of a 2D lamella-like distorted hexagonal sheet at the liquid/vapor interface and a 3D lamellar superstructure formed by stacked 2D sheets in the PEG-AgNP suspension. Effects of the core type of nanoparticles on the assembly can be used to control structures for potential applications in plasmonics and photonics.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

In Situ Studies of the Swelling by an Electrolyte in Electrochemical Doping of Ethylene Glycol-Substituted Polythiophene

Organic mixed ionic electronic conductors (OMIECs) have the potential to enable diverse new technologies, ranging from biosensors to flexible energy storage devices and neuromorphic computing platforms. However, a study of these materials in their operating state, which convolves both passive and potential-driven solvent, cation, and anion ingress, is extremely difficult, inhibiting rational material design. In this report, we present a novel approach to the in situ studies of the electrochemical switching of a prototypical OMIEC based on oligoethylene glycol (oEG) substitution of semicrystalline regioregular polythiophene via grazing-incidence X-ray scattering. Here by studying the crystal lattice both dry and in contact with the electrolyte while maintaining potential control, we can directly observe the evolution of the crystalline domains and their relationship to film performance in an electrochemically gated transistor. Despite the oEG side-chain enabling bulk electrolyte uptake, we find that the crystalline regions are relatively hydrophobic, exhibiting little (less than one water per thiophene) swelling of the undoped polymer, suggesting that the amorphous regions dominate the reported passive swelling behavior. With applied potential, we observe that the π–π separation in the crystals contracts while the lamella spacing increases in a balanced fashion, resulting in a negligible change in the crystal volume. The potential-induced changes in the crystal structure do not clearly correlate to the electrical performance of the film as an organic electrochemical transistor, suggesting that the transistor performance is strongly influenced by the amorphous regions of the film.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Ion Transport in 2D Nanostructured $\pi$-Conjugated Thieno[3,2- b ]thiophene-Based Liquid Crystal

Leveraging the self-assembling behavior of liquid crystals designed for controlling ion transport is of both fundamental and technological significance. Here, we have designed and prepared a liquid crystal that contains (2,5-bis(5-(2,5,8,11-tetraoxatridecan-13-yl)thiophen-2yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene (BTTT) as mesogenic core and conjugated segment and symmetric tetra(ethylene oxide) (EO4) as polar side chains for ionic conducting regions. Driven by the crystallization of the BTTT cores, BTTT/dEO4 exhibits well-ordered smectic phases below 71.5 °C as confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry, polarized optical microscope, temperature dependent wide-angle X-ray scattering and grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS). We adopted a combination of experimental GIWAXS and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to better understand the molecular packing of BTTT/dEO4 films, particularly when loaded with the ion conducting salt, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI). Ionic conduction of BTTT/dEO4 is realized by the addition of LiTFSI, with the material able to maintain smectic phases up to r = [Li + ]/[EO] = 0.1. In this work, The highest ionic conductivity of 8 × 10 -3 S/cm was attained at an intermedium salt concentration of r = 0.05. It was also found that ion conduction in BTTT/dEO4 is enhanced by forming a smectic layered structure with irregular interfaces between the BTTT and EO4 layers and by the lateral film expansion upon salt addition. This can be explained by the enhancement of the misalignment and configurational entropy of the side chains, which increase their local mobility and that of the solvated ions. Our molecular design thus illustrates how, beyond the favorable energetic interactions that drive the assembly and ion solvating domains, modulation of entropic effects can also be favorably harnessed to improve ion conduction.

thin film electrochemical impedance spectroscopy↗