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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1985

Planning for VRM: Radar and sonar studies of volcanic terrains on Earth, Venus and Mars

Venera 15 and 16 radar images of Venus, together with Earth based data from the Arecibo Observatory, indicate that volcanism has played an important role in the evolution of the Venusian landscape. At the end of this decade, NASA's Venus Radar Mapper (VRM) spacecraft will return near global information that will further constrain the planet's geologic history. Due to the diversity of volcano/tectonic features that have already been identified on Venus, and the intrinsic differences between radar images and conventional photography, additional expertise is being developed with which to interpret the VRM images of this unusual environment. Several attempts to better understand the physical characteristics of volcanic terrains are described here. Pioneer Venus radar altimeter measurements of topographic variability and surface roughness are compared with Goldstone radar measurements of volcanic terrains on Mars. Synthetic aperture radar images obtained by the SIR-B Space Shuttle experiment over Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii, are employed to investigate the differences in radar returns from pahoehoe, aa and sheet lava flows. Four polarization, multiple incidence angle, aircraft radar images of the Medicine Lake area of N. California are used to address the unusually high cross-polarization ratio of lobate flows around Beta Regio on Venus, as measured by the Arecibo radar.

Mouginis-Mark, P. J.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Concentrations and isotope ratios of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur in ocean-floor basalts

Ocean floor basalts studied from the Galapagos Ridge, FAMOUS area, Cayman Trough and Kilauea east rift contain 20-200 ppm carbon and 0.3-2.8 ppn nitrogen as sums of the vesicle-filling gases CO2 and N2 and dissolved species. The wide range of carbon contents found is due partly to the different extent of outgassing of vesicle-filling gases and partly to depth dependency of dissolved CO2 in the basalts. Sulfate commonly exists with sulfide in these basalts, and the sulfate/sulfide ratio increases with increasing water content, perhaps reflecting the higher oxidation potential in basalt melt of the higher water content.

Sakai, H.↗
NASA NTRS1985

Petrogenetic modeling of Hawaiian tholeiitic basalts - A geochemical approach

The abundances of 29 elements in 33 samples of tholeiitic basalts from five volcanoes in Hawaii are determined by neutron-activation analysis; the results are presented in tables and graphs with the data of Murali et al. (1977) for a sixth volcano and characterized in detail; and geochemical partial-melting models are constructed to explain the origin of these basalts. The models proposed are based on olivine crystallization from three distinct source compositions (determined from the REE and Sc partitioning) and correspond to the volcano groups Mauna Kea, Kohala, and Kilauea; Mauna Loa and Lanai; and Koolau.

Budahn, J. R.↗
NASA NTRS1987

Calculated viscosity-distance dependence for some actively flowing lavas

The importance of viscosity as a gauge of the various energy and momentum dissipation regimes of lava flows has been realized for a long time. Nevertheless, despite its central role in lava dynamics and kinematics, it remains among the most difficult of flow physical properties to measure in situ during an eruption. Attempts at reconstructing the actual emplacement viscosities of lava flows from their solidified topographic form are difficult. Where data are available on the position of an advancing flow front as a function of time, it is possible to calculate the effective viscosity of the front as a function of distance from the vent, under the assumptions of a steady state regime. As an application and test of an equation given, relevant parameters from five recent flows on Mauna Loa and Kilauea were utilized to infer the dynamic structure of their aggregate flow front viscosity as they advanced, up to cessation. The observed form of the viscosity-distance relation for the five active Hawaiian flows examined appears to be exponential, with a rapid increase just before the flows stopped as one would expect.

Pieri, David↗
NASA NTRS1986

Preliminary analyses of SIB-B radar data for recent Hawaii lava flows

The Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-B) experiment acquired two L-band (23 cm wavelength) radar images (at about 28 and 48 deg incidence angles) over the Kilauea Volcano area of southeastern Hawaii. Geologic analysis of these data indicates that, although aa lava flows and pyroclastic deposits can be discriminated, pahoehoe lava flows are not readily distinguished from surrounding low return materials. Preliminary analysis of data extracted from isolated flows indicates that flow type (i.e., aa or pahoehoe) and relative age can be determined from their basic statistics and illumination angle.

Kaupp, V. H.↗
NASA NTRS1988

Evidence for a single impact at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary from trace elements

Not only meteoritic elements (Ir, Ni, Au, Pt metals), but also some patently non-meteoritic elements (As, Sb) are enriched at the K-T boundary. Eight enriched elements at 7 K-T sites were compared and it was found that: All have fairly constant proportions to Ir and Kilauea (invoked as an example of a volcanic source of Ir by opponents of the impact theory) has too little of 7 of these 8 elements to account for the boundary enrichments. The distribution of trace elements at the K-T boundary was reexamined using data from 11 sites for which comprehensive are available. The meteoritic component can be assessed by first normalizing the data to Ir, the most obviously extraterrestrial element, and then to Cl chondrites. The double normalization reduces the concentration range from 11 decades to 5 and also facilitates the identification of meteoritic elements. At sites where trace elements were analyzed in sub-divided samples of boundary clay, namely, Caravaca (SP), Stevns Klint (DK), Flaxbourne River (NZ) and Woodside Creek (NZ), Sb, As and Zn are well correlated with Ir across the boundary implying a common deposition mechanism. Elemental carbon is also enriched by up to 10,000 x in boundary clay from 5 K-T sides and is correlated with Ir across the boundary at Woodside Creek. While biomass would appear to be the primary fuel source for this carbon a contribution from a fossil fuel source may be necessary in order to account for the observed C abundance.

Gilmour, Iain↗
NASA NTRS1990

Fault propagation folds induced by gravitational failure and slumping of the Central Costa Rica volcanic range - Implications for large terrestrial and Martian volcanic edifices

Maps are presented that describe the compressional tectonic structures found at the base of the Central Costa Rica volcanic range (CCRVR), which comprise thrust faults and related fault propagation folds, only partly covered by syntectonic and posttectonic volcanoclastic deposits. Evidence is presented that these structures formed by gravitational failure and lumping of the flanks of the volcanic range. It is suggested that similar structures may be found at the toe of the southern flank of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, and along the perimeter scarp of the Olympus Mons volcano on Mars.

Borgia, Andrea↗
NASA NTRS1990

Thermal infrared spectral character of Hawaiian basaltic glasses

Thermal IR reflectance spectra of exposed surfaces of Hawaiian basalt samples from Mauna Loa and Kilauea show systematic changes with age. Spectra of fresh glass collected from active lava flows showed evidence of a strong degree of disorder. After a few weeks of exposure to the laboratory environment, spectra of the top surfaces of these samples began to exhibit spectral features suggestive of ordering into silicate chainlike ansd sheetlike units. With progressive aging, features of apparent sheetlike structures became the preferred mode.

Crisp, Joy↗
NASA NTRS1992

Cooling rate of an active Hawaiian lava flow from nighttime spectroradiometer measurements

A narrow-band spectroradiometer has been used to make nighttime measurements of the Phase 50 eruption of Pu'u O'o, on the East Rift Zone of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. On February 19, 1992, a GER spectroradiometer was used to determine the cooling rate of an active lava flow. This instrument collects 12-bit data between 0.35 to 3.0 microns at a spectral resolution of 1-5 nm. Thirteen spectra of a single area on a pahoehoe flow field were collected over a 59 minute period (21:27-22:26 HST) from which the cooling of the lava surface has been investigated. A two-component thermal mixing model (Flynn, 1992) applied to data for the flow immediately on emplacement gave a best-fit crustal temperature of 768 C, a hot component at 1150 C, and a hot radiating area of 3.6 percent of the total area. Over a 52-minute period (within the time interval between flow resurfacings) the lava flow crust cooled by 358 to 410 C at a rate that was as high as 15 C/min. The observations have significance both for satellite observations of active volcanoes and for numerical models of the cooling of lava flows during their emplacement.

Flynn, Luke P.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Lava flow topographic measurements for radar data interpretation

Topographic profiles at 25- and 5-cm horizontal resolution for three sites along a lava flow on Kilauea Volcano are presented, and these data are used to illustrate techniques for surface roughness analysis. Height and slope distributions and the height autocorrelation function are evaluated as a function of varying lowpass filter wavelength for the 25-cm data. Rms slopes are found to increase rapidly with decreasing topographic scale and are typically much higher than those found by modeling of Magellan altimeter data for Venus. A more robust description of the surface roughness appears to be the ratio of rms height to surface height correlation length. For all three sites this parameter falls within the range of values typically found from model fits to Magellan altimeter waveforms. The 5-cm profile data are used to estimate the effect of small-scale roughness on quasi-specular scattering.

Campbell, Bruce A.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Atmospheric corrections for TIMS estimated emittance

The estimated temperature of the average of 500 lines of Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS) data of the Pacific Ocean, from flight line 94, collected on 30 Sep. 1988, at 1931 GMT is shown. With no atmospheric corrections, estimated temperature decreases away from nadir (the center of the scan line). A LOWTRAN modeled correction, using local radiosonde data and instrument scan angle information, results in reversed limb darkening effects for most bands, and does not adequately correct all bands to the same temperature. The atmosphere tends to re-radiate energy at the wavelengths at which it most absorbs, and thus the overall difference between corrected and uncorrected temperatures is approximately 40 C, despite the average LOWTRAN calculated transmittance of only 60 percent between 8.1 and 11.6 microns. An alternative approach to atmospheric correction is a black body normalization. This is done by calculating a normalization factor for each pixel position and wavelength, which when applied results in a single calculated temperature, as would be expected for a gray body with near uniform emittance. The black body adjustment is based on the atmospheric conditions over the sea. The ground elevation profile along the remaining 3520 scan lines (approximately 10 km) of flight line 94, up the slopes of Kilauea, determined from aircraft pressure and laser altimeter data is shown. This flight line includes a large amount of vegetation that is clearly discernible on the radiance image, being much cooler than the surrounding rocks. For each of the 3520 scan lines, pixels were classified as vegetation or 'other'. A moving average of 51 lines was applied to the composite vegetation emittance for each scan line, to reduce noise. Assuming vegetation to be like water, and to act as gray body with an emittance of 0.986 across the spectrum, it is shown that that the LOWTRAN induced artifacts are severe, and other than for the 0.9.9 micron channel, not significantly different from applying no corrections at all. As expected, with increasing elevation atmospheric effects are slightly reduced, because moisture tends to be concentrated in the lowermost part of the atmosphere. The black body adjustment is highly robust, and even at elevations nearly 600 meters above the sea, remains an alternative procedure for use in calculating emittance.

Warner, T. A.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Formation of perched lava ponds on basaltic volcanoes: Interaction between cooling rate and flow geometry allows estimation of lava effusion rates

Perched lava ponds are infrequent but distinctive topographic features formed during some basaltic eruptions. Two such ponds, each approximately 150 m in diameter, formed during the 1968 eruption at Napau Crater and the 1974 eruption of Mauna Ulu, both on Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Each one formed where a channelized, high volume flux lava flow encountered a sharp reduction of slope: the flow spread out radially and stalled, forming a well-defined terminal levee enclosing a nearly circular lava pond. We describe a model of how cooling limits the motion of lava spreading radially into a pond and compare this with the case of a channelized flow. The difference in geometry has a major effect, such that the size of a pond is a good indicator of the volume flux of the lava forming it. Lateral spreading on distal shallow slopes is a major factor limiting the lengths of lava flows.

Wilson, L.↗
NASA NTRS1993

A classification scheme for the morphology of lava flow fields

Analysis of the processes controlling the advance of lava flows shows that, if no other factors intervene, thermal constraints will act to limit the maximum length of a flow being fed at a given volume or mass effusion rate from a vent. These constraints can be characterized through the Gratz number, which takes on a large value at the vent and decreases down flow. Early application of this principle showed that, despite the many subtleties of modes of heat loss from flows, motion apparently ceases when the Gratz number has decreased to a value close to 300. Recent analyses of flow units from the 1983-86 Pu'u 'O'o eruption of Kilauea and of other, more silicic lava flow units confirm this finding.

Wilson, L.↗
NASA NTRS1995

Volatile transport on Venus and implications for surface geochemistry and geology

The high vapor pressure of volatile metal halides and chalcogenides (e.g., of Cu, Zn, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi) at typical Venus surface temperatures, coupled with the altitude-dependent temperature gradient of approximately 8.5 K/km, is calculated to transport volatile metal vapors to the highlands of Venus, where condensation and accumulation will occur. The predicted geochemistry of volatile metals on Venus is supported by observations of CuCl in volcanic gases at Kilauea and Nyiragongo, and large enrichments of these and other volatile elements in terrestrial volcanic aerosols. A one-dimensional finite difference vapor transport model shows the diffusive migration of a thickness of 0.01 to greater than 10 microns/yr of moderately to highly volatile phases (e.g., metal halides and chalcogenides) from the hot lowlands (740 K) to the cold highlands (660 K) on Venus. The diffusive transport of volatile phases on Venus may explain the observed low emissivity of the Venusian highlands, hazes at 6-km altitude observed by two Pioneer Venus entry probes, and the Pioneer Venus entry probe anomalies at 12.5 km.

Brackett, Robert A.↗
NASA NTRS1995

The Dynamics of Rapidly Emplaced Terrestrial Lava Flows and Implications for Planetary Volcanism

The Kaupulehu 1800-1801 lava flow of Hualalai volcano and the 1823 Keaiwa flow from the Great Crack of the Kilauea southwest rift zone had certain unusual and possibly unique properties for terrestrial basaltic lava flows. Both flows apparently had very low viscosities, high effusion rates, and uncommonly rapid rates of advance. Ultramafic xenolith nodules in the 1801 flow form stacks of cobbles with lava rinds of only millimeter thicknesses. The velocity of the lava stream in the 1801 flow was extremely high, at least 10 m/s (more than 40 km/h). Observations and geological evidence suggest similarly high velocities for the 1823 flow. The unusual eruption conditions that produced these lava flows suggest a floodlike mode of emplacement unlike that of most other present-day flows. Although considerable effort has gone into understanding the viscous fluid dynamics and thermal processes that often occur in basaltic flows, the unusual conditions prevalent for the Kaupulehu and Keaiwa flows necessitate different modeling considerations. We propose an elementary flood model for this type of lava emplacement and show that it produces consistent agreement with the overall dimensions of the flow, channel sizes, and other supporting field evidence. The reconstructed dynamics of these rapidly emplaced terrestrial lava flows provide significant insights about the nature of these eruptions and their analogs in planetary volcanism.

Baloga, Stephen↗
NASA NTRS1998

Monitoring of Volcanogenic CO2-Induced Tree Kills with AVIRIS Image Data at Mammoth Mountain, California

Elevated cold CO2 emissions from the flank of Mammoth Mountain volcano on the southwest rim of the Long Valley Caldera, eastern California, have been the cause of over 100 acres of dead trees in that area since 1990. The source of the CO2 gas is thought to be from one or more magmatic intrusion(s) beneath Mammoth Mountain and is probably related to a period of seismic unrest that began in 1989. The gas rises to the surface probably from depths of a few kilometers, along faults and fracture zones. The gas is at ambient temperature and diffuses from the soil rather than discharging from distinct vents. Typically, soil gas concentrations in tree-kill areas range from 10% to over 90% CO2 by volume, as compared to normal background of < 1% in healthy forest. The gas composition is predominantly CO2 mixed with air (sulfur gases are not elevated), and C and He isotopic ratios are consistent with a magmatic origin for the gas. The total CO2 emission has been estimated at 1200 tons/day, comparable to the emissions at Kilauea. Some of the dead trees are as old as 250 years, suggesting that similar anomalous gas discharge has not occurred over the previous few hundred years. The delta C-13/12 ratio in the Mammoth Mountain CO2 emission averages about -4.5 (PDB standard). This is consistent with a mantle source for the carbon. However, the large volume of the emission suggests that not all of the CO2 is necessarily being generated from the 1989 intrusion. The voluminous gas could be leaking from a vapor-rich zone, capped by an impermeable layer, that was supplied CO2 from degassing of many small magma bodies that intruded beneath the mountain over a period of decades or centuries. Earthquakes in 1989 could have fractured the capping layer and provided pathways for the escape Of CO2 to the surface. Alternatively, some of the CO2 could be derived from contact metamorphism of carbonate rocks intruded by magma. Carbonate-bearing Paleozoic roof pendents crop out in close proximity to Mammoth Mountain. It is possible that similar rocks could occur at depth beneath Mammoth Mountain, and could have contributed CO2 from thermal decomposition caused from recent intrusions. We hope to determine the C-13/12 ratio of a suite of samples to demonstrate if the carbonate rocks could be the source of at least part of the 1990-97 CO2 emission. To better understand the behavior of the CO2 gas, we have used hyperspectral imagery data of Mammoth Mountain acquired from the Airborne Visual/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) to map out areas of dead trees. The areas of tree kill have increased in size from about 50 acres in 1994 to about 100 acres in 1997. Tree kill is the major surface manifestation of the carbon dioxide flux at Mammoth Mountain, is widely dispersed, and has been cursorily mapped by regular field mapping techniques in the area. Initial investigations using airborne digital imagery from the Thematic Mapper Simulator (NS001) and AVIRIS instruments have shown extremely encouraging results for complete delineation of the vegetation anomalies. The most successful maps (when compared with ground truth) were developed using AVIRIS data with spectral angle mapper and matched filter algorithms with a data set that was reduced to maximum variance via the minimum noise fraction transformation. The result of this work is a series of maps that show the tree kill areas occurring in an halo-pattern surrounding the base of Mammoth Mountain. We are applying these same techniques to earlier AVIRIS images of Mammoth Mountain to examine the progression of the tree kill areas over time. Temporal maps of the tree kill areas may assist in constructing a picture of the structure beneath Mammoth Mountain.

Hausback, Brian P.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Noachian Martian Volcanics a Water Source

H2O was supplied to the Noachian atmosphere by eruptions, or in association with large impacts. Most water outgassed into an extremely cold atmosphere, and condensate deposits were inevitable. High heat flow could lead to subglacial melting only if ice thicknesses were greater than 500-1000m, which is extremely unlikely. Subareal melting and flow is contingent upon temperatures periodically exceeding 273 K, and retarding evaporative loss of the flow. In still air, evaporation into a dry atmosphere is in the free convection regime, and a stream with 2 cu m/s discharge, flowing 1 m/s could persist for hundreds of days and cover distances greater than any valley reach. The zero-wind-shear condition is considered implausible however. We investigate the possibility that evaporation rates were suppressed because the atmosphere was regionally charged with H2O as it moved over snow/ice fields. Our initial concern is precipitation from volcanic plumes. A Kilauea-style eruption on the martian surface would cover a 10km circular deposit with 10cm of H2O, if all H2O could be precipitated near the vent. The characteristics of the eruption at the vent, (vent size, temperature, H2O content, etc.) are independent of the environmental conditions. The subsequent behavior of the plume, including precipitation of ash and H2O condensate depends strongly on the environment. Hence, the proximal fate of volcanic H2O is amenable to treatment in a model. A simple bulk thermodynamic model of the rise of an H2O plume through a stably stratified CO2 atmosphere, with only adiabatic cooling, produces runaway plume rise. A more complex treatment includes the effects of latent heat release, wind shear along the plume, divergence of ash and H2O, and will yield more realistic estimates of H2O transport in eruptive plumes. Results of these simulations will be presented.

Zent, A. P.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Statistical Distribution of Inflation on Lava Flows: Analysis of Flow Surfaces on Earth and Mars

The surface morphology of a lava flow results from processes that take place during the emplacement of the flow. Certain types of features, such as tumuli, lava rises and lava rise pits, are indicators of flow inflation or endogenous growth of a lava flow. Tumuli in particular have been identified as possible indicators of tube location, indicating that their distribution on the surface of a lava flow is a junction of the internal pathways of lava present during flow emplacement. However, the distribution of tumuli on lava flows has not been examined in a statistically thorough manner. In order to more rigorously examine the distribution of tumuli on a lava flow, we examined a discrete flow lobe with numerous lava rises and tumuli on the 1969 - 1974 Mauna Ulu flow at Kilauea, Hawaii. The lobe is located in the distal portion of the flow below Holei Pali, which is characterized by hummocky pahoehoe flows emplaced from tubes. We chose this flow due to its discrete nature allowing complete mapping of surface morphologies, well-defined boundaries, well-constrained emplacement parameters, and known flow thicknesses. In addition, tube locations for this Mauna Ulu flow were mapped by Holcomb (1976) during flow emplacement. We also examine the distribution of tumuli on the distal portion of the hummocky Thrainsskjoldur flow field provided by Rossi and Gudmundsson (1996). Analysis of the Mauna Ulu and Thrainsskjoldur flow lobes and the availability of high-resolution MOC images motivated us to look for possible tumuli-dominated flow lobes on the surface of Mars. We identified a MOC image of a lava flow south of Elysium Mons with features morphologically similar to tumuli. The flow is characterized by raised elliptical to circular mounds, some with axial cracks, that are similar in size to the tumuli measured on Earth. One potential avenue of determining whether they are tumuli is to look at the spatial distribution to see if any patterns similar to those of tumuli-dominated terrestrial flows can be identified. Since tumuli form by the injection of lava beneath a crust, the distribution of tumuli on a flow should represent the distribution of thermally preferred pathways beneath the surface of the crust. That distribution of thermally preferred pathways may be a function of the evolution of a basaltic lava flow. As a longer-lived flow evolves, initially broad thermally preferred pathways would evolve to narrower, more well-defined tube-like pathways. The final flow morphology clearly preserves the growth of the flow over time, with inflation features indicating pathways that were not necessarily contemporaneously active. Here, we test using statistical analysis whether this final flow morphology produces distinct distributions that can be used to readily determine the distribution of thermally preferred pathways beneath the surface of the crust.

Glazel, L. S.↗