Terrestrial analogs to lunar dimple /drainage/ craters
Lunar dimple /drainage/ craters formation mechanisms, considering analogous earth drainage craters associated with lava tubes
Greeley, R.↗
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On the origin of lunar sinuous rilles
Lunar sinuous rilles formation by fluid flow mechanisms, discussing evidence for lava and rille formation by lava tube collapse
Greeley, R.↗
Lunar Hadley Rille - Considerations of its origin
Hadley Rille origin as lava channel and partly collapsed lava tube, taking into account topographic configuration, terrestrial analogs, geomorphology and meteoroid bombardment
Greeley, R.↗
Planetary geology, stellar evolution and galactic cosmology
Field studies of selected basalt flows in the Snake River Plain, Idaho, were made for comparative lunar and Mars geological investigations. Studies of basalt lava tubes were also initiated in Washington, Oregon, Hawaii, and northern California. The main effort in the stellar evolution research is toward the development of a computer code to calculate hydrodynamic flow coupled with radiative energy transport. Estimates of the rotation effects on a collapsing cloud indicate that the total angular momentum is the critical parameter. The study of Paschen and Balmer alpha lines of positronium atoms in the center of a galaxy is mentioned.
Source record↗
Geology of Hadley Rille.
Apollo 15 data support the concept that Hadley Rille is a giant collapsed lava tube that originated at its south end. The south half of the rille is sinuous and the bends are not structurally controlled, whereas the north half of the rille follows pre-mare structural troughs. Most of the rille has a V-shaped profile apparently formed by recession of the rims and coalescence of talus from both sides. The rille is scalloped and discontinuous locally, and the deepest parts consistently are the widest. This is a different relationship from that shown by river channels, but can instead be explained by collapse, with most extensive foundering at the deepest points. The upper 60 meters of the walls of the rille at the Apollo 15 site expose several layers of mare basalt. Most are massive units averaging at least 10 m thick; others are layered. Numerous talus blocks derived from the massive outcrops are 10 to 30 m across. The lunar flows are thus both thick and little jointed. The outcrop ledge and blocky talus derived from it are absent where the rille abuts Apennine massifs, showing that the rille cuts through the mare basalt and against massif material.
Howard, K. A.↗
The origin of sinuous rilles
This report describes the distribution and morphology of sinuous rilles and presents data on rille geometry. Examples of the relation between sinuous rilles and the regional structure are given. Leading theories for the origin of sinuous rilles are discussed and evaluated. It is concluded that the general weight of evidence is against water erosion. The ash flow theory is not excluded, but evidence in its favor is weak. The best explanations involve lava tube formation for certain sinuous rilles, and faulting for others. In some cases, a gradation between faulting and igneous activity is noted.
Gornitz, V.↗
Analysis of lunar mare geology from Apollo photography
Panoramic and metric photography of the lunar surface from Apollo missions 15, 16, and 17 is the basis for descriptions and interpretations of mare surface features. It is suggested that the formation of mare ridges occurred over an extended period of time rather than in single short episodes of activity through faulting, flexuring, volcanism, and plutonism. Spatial relationships between rilles and ridges suggest they were formed both simultaneously and sequentially. The sinuous rilles may have developed as open lava channels or collapsed lava tubes, while the straight rilles may have been formed by fracturing. It is inferred that small scale volcanism and tectonism have occurred between major flooding episodes.
Young, R. A.↗
Lunar crater chains of non-impact origin
Apollo 15, 16, and 17 photographs were scanned for lunar crater chains consisting of three or more aligned craters with similar states of degradation, and the origin of these chains is considered. The mode of origin for mare crater chains appears to be associated with either collapsed lava tubes or cinder cones, while the origin of highland crater chains generally seems to involve highland volcanoes. Crater chains from mare regions range from 20 to 40 km long and appear to have no preferred structural control of their orientation. Highland crater chains range from 1 to 113 km long and may be structurally controlled by the lunar grid system.
Eppler, D.↗
Volcanic features of Hawaii. A basis for comparison with Mars
Despite the difference in size Martian and Hawaiian volcanoes have numerous characteristics in common. Specific features such as lava channels, collapsed lava tubes, levees and flow fronts, all very common in Hawaii, are also abundant on the flanks of some of the Martian volcanoes. Striking differences also exist, such as the apparent lack of radial rift zones on some Martian volcanoes and the paucity of cinder and spatter cones. Some of the best photographs of Martian and Hawaiian volcanic features are presented. Descriptive legends are provided for each picture. An overview of the geological processes and structures depicted is included.
Carr, M. H.↗
The Snake River Plain, Idaho - Representative of a new category of volcanism
Studies of the volcanic geology of the Snake River Plain, Idaho, and comparison with other basaltic regions suggest a new category of volcanic activity, termed basaltic plains volcanism. Typified by the Snake River Plain, this style of volcanism is intermediate between basaltic flood (or plateau) eruptions and Hawaiian volcanism. Characteristics that are common to both Hawaiian and plains volcanism are: multiple lava flow units which erupt primarily from point sources, formation of low shields, and frequent emplacement through lava tubes or channels. Characteristics that are common to both flood basalts and plains volcanism are: high volume flows, vents aligned along rift zones, and planar surfaces. The recognition of plains volcanism in other areas provides a means to interpret the style of eruption and volcanic history.
Greeley, R.↗
The 1950 sulfur flow of Mauna Loa: Considerations for Io
Some of the geological relationships observed in the Mauna Loa sulfur flow may apply in considering volcanic processes on Io. Given the presence of sulfur/sulfur compounds in the eruption plumes and on the surface of Io, it is likely that extensive secondary deposits of sulfur exist, some of which may be of fumarolic origin and analogous to the Mauna Loa deposit. Given the likelihood of silicate volcanism of Io based on the inferred material properties of some flows, and the attendant high temperatures for silicate volcanism, it is likely that the secondary surface deposits of sulfur would have been mobilized without being heated to the high viscosity stage. Mobilized sulfur flows on Io may flow long distances as a result of: (1) low viscosities in the melting range; (2) sustained effusion resulting from continued heating source area; (3) continued remobilization within the flow as a consequence of surges from the source; and (4) extension via lava tubes, or similar conduits through which there is little heat loss. Sulfur flows may form a relatively thin veneer over silicate flows and other surface units, given their fluidity and low mobilization temperature. Active splashing and splattering may spread sulfur over a wider area contributing the bright blooms observed in association with some Ionian flows.
Greeley, R.↗
Some observations on the geology of the Apollo 15 landing site
High resolution (panoramic) and high geometric fidelity (metric) photos were taken from orbit of the lunar landing sites. Gamma ray and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopic measurement were taken to determine regional chemical composition of the Moon. Distinctive features of the Apennine Bench Formation are described. The structurally controlled topography of the Apennine Bench Formation is suggested of a lava channel or collapsed lava tube.
Swann, G. A.↗
Geology and petrology of the Apollo 15 landing site - Past, present, and future understanding
The main objectives of the Apollo 15 lunar mission were to investigate and sample materials from the Apennine Front (expected to be Imbrium ejecta and pre-Imbrian materials), the Hadley Rille, and the mare lavas of Palus Putredinis. The Hadley Rille was found to be a collapsed lava tube or channel, and from it, many mare basalt samples were collected which form two main chemical groups of the same age (3.3 b.y.), isotopic characteristics, and rate-earth element patterns. One group, olivine-normative, contains many vescular specimens and shows an olivine fraction trend. The other group, quartz-normative, is pigeonite-phyric and contains both vitrophyric and coarse-grained samples but exhibits little fractionation. The Apennine Front samples include such highland materials as ferroan anorthosites, spinel-bearing troctolites, norites, impact melts and metamorphosed breccias. A conspicuous component of the regolith breccias is volcanic green glass. The Apennine Front is characterized by a low-KREEP composition, a composition which has never been found as a pristine igneous rock type. Another unexpected discovey was the common occurrence of 3.5 b.y. old volcanic KREEP basalts. It is concluded that all major lunar processes can be profitably studied from the samples and observations at this single location.
Spudis, P. D.↗
Toward a model for leveed lava flows
Many lava flows have two distinct volumetric components during emplacement. First, there is a component actively flowing in accordance with Newtonian or other constitutive relations. Second, there may be an inactive, stationary component that is no longer participating in the forward movement of the flow. Such passive components may take the form of flow-confining levees, solidified lateral margins, overspilling, plating, small ponds and sidestreams, or a lava tube. To describe the conservation of flow volume for the active component, governing equations are given and discussed.
Baloga, Stephen↗
The formation of Hadley Rille and implications for the geology of the Apollo 15 region
The results of studies of terrestrial lava tube systems and the regional and detailed site geology of the Apollo 15 area have been combined to develop a model for the formation of Hadley Rille. The regional geology of the Apennine bench formation and its relation to Mozart and Hadley Rilles is discussed. It is shown that the total thickness of mare basalt at the Apollo landing site is on the order of a few tens of meters, mostly less than 50 m. It is suggested that the role of thermal erosion in the development of sinuous rilles on the moon may be less important than previously assumed and that the assimilation of refractory highland rock types into mare basaltic magma is a minor lunar process.
Spudis, Paul D.↗
Geologic and remote sensing studies of Rima Mozart
Geologic, photographic, and remote sensing data on Rima Mozart are analyzed to study the processes responsible for the formation of lunar sinuous rilles. The results show that it is unlikely that a complete lava tube could have existed along the Rima Mozart rille. A total eruptive volume of 6372 cu km has been determined for an open channel or tube with an eruption rate of about 80,000 cu m/s and a duration of 947 days. Near-infrared spectral reflectance data and 2.8-cm and 70-cm radar observations indicate that volcanic activity was responsible for the formation of the rille and that pyroclastic deposits are present around Kathleen and Ann as well as at the base of the Apennines.
Coombs, Cassandra R.↗
Space architecture monograph series. Volume 4: Genesis 2: Advanced lunar outpost
This research and design study investigated advanced lunar habitats for astronauts and mission specialists on the Earth's moon. Design recommendations are based on environmental response to the lunar environment, human habitability (human factors and environmental behavior research), transportability (structural and materials system with least mass), constructability (minimizing extravehicular time), construction dependability and resilience, and suitability for NASA launch research missions in the 21st century. The recommended design uses lunar lava tubes, with construction being a combination of Space Station Freedom derived hard modules and light weight Kevlar laminate inflatable structures. The proposed habitat includes research labs and a biotron, crew quarters and crew support facility, mission control, health maintenance facility, maintenance work areas for psychological retreat, privacy, and comtemplation. Furniture, specialized equipment, and lighting are included in the analysis and design. Drawings include base master plans, construction sequencing, overall architectural configuration, detailed floor plans, sections and axonometrics, with interior perspectives.
Fieber, Joseph P.↗
Geophysical Methods: an Overview
Geophysics is expected to have a major role in lunar resource assessment when manned systems return to the Moon. Geophysical measurements made from a lunar rover will contribute to a number of key studies: estimating regolith thickness, detection of possible large-diameter lava tubes within maria basalts, detection of possible subsurface ice in polar regions, detection of conductive minerals that formed directly from a melt (orthomagmatic sulfides of Cu, Ni, Co), and mapping lunar geology beneath the regolith. The techniques that can be used are dictated both by objectives and by our abilities to adapt current technology to lunar conditions. Instrument size, weight, power requirements, and freedom from orientation errors are factors we have considered. Among the geophysical methods we believe to be appropriate for a lunar resource assessment are magnetics, including gradiometry, time-domain magnetic induction, ground-penetrating radar, seismic reflection, and gravimetry.
Becker, A.↗