Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Li-ion Cell Performance”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Lithium Plating Characteristics in High Areal Capacity Li-Ion Battery Electrodes

Li-ion battery degradation and safety events are often attributed to undesirable metallic lithium plating. Since their release, Li-ion battery electrodes have been made progressively thicker to provide a higher energy density. However, the propensity for plating in these thicker pairings is not well understood. Herein, we combine an experimental plating-prone condition with robust mesoscale modeling to examine electrode pairings with capacities ranging from 2.5 to 6 mAh/cm 2 and negative to positive (N/P) electrode areal capacity ratio from 0.9 to 1.8 without the need for extensive aging tests. Using both experimentation and a mesoscale model, we identify a shift from conventional high state-of-charge (SOC) type plating to high overpotential (OP) type plating as electrode thickness increases. Further, these two plating modes have distinct morphologies, identified by optical microscopy and electrochemical signatures. We demonstrate that under operating conditions where these plating modes converge, a high propensity of plating exists, revealing the importance of predicting and avoiding this overlap for a given electrode pairing. Further, we identify that thicker electrodes, beyond a capacity of 3 mAh/cm 2 or thickness >75 μm, are prone to high OP, limiting negative electrode (NE) utilization and preventing cross-sectional oversizing the NE from mitigating plating. Here, it simply contributes to added mass and volume. The experimental thermal gradient and mesoscale model either combined or independently provide techniques capable of probing performance and safety implications of mild changes to electrode design features.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Low Melting Temperature Gallium–Indium Liquid Metal Anode for Solid-State Li-Ion Batteries

Solid-state Li-ion batteries are attracting attention for their enhanced safety features, higher energy density, and broader operational temperature range compared to systems based on liquid electrolytes. However, current solid-state Li-ion batteries face performance challenges, such as suboptimal cycling and poor rate capabilities, often due to inadequate interfacial contact between the solid electrolyte and electrodes. To address this issue, we incorporated a gallium–indium (Ga–In) liquid metal as the anode in a solid-state Li-ion battery setup, employing Li 6 PS 5 Cl as the solid electrolyte. Operating at room temperature, this configuration achieved an initial capacity of 389 mAh g –1 and maintained 88% of this capacity after 30 cycles at a 0.05 C rate. It also demonstrated a capacity retention of 66% after 500 cycles at a 0.5 C rate. In comparison to solid anode materials, such as tin, the Ga–In liquid metal exhibited superior cycling stability and rate capacity, which is due to the self-healing and fluid properties of the alloy that ensure stable interfacial contact with solid electrolytes. In situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and ex situ scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses revealed that indium does not directly participate in the lithiation/delithiation process. Instead, it helps maintain the alloy’s low melting point, facilitating its return to a liquid state after delithiation. In a comparative analysis of stack pressure during cycling in cells utilizing Ga–In liquid metal and tin, the Ga–In liquid metal cell demonstrated an ability to buffer pressure increases associated with deformation. In conclusion, these findings suggest a promising approach for enhancing solid-state batteries by integrating liquid metal anodes, which improve interfacial contact and stability.

Alloys↗
DOE OSTI2025

Exploring the Electrochemical Stability Window of an All-Solid-State Composite Cathode via a Novel Operando Tender XPS Setup

All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) have the potential to provide greater energy density than conventional batteries based on liquid electrolytes. Here, an operando ASSB cell setup for tender X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was developed, and the interface of a Ni-rich layered transition metal oxide cathode active material (CAM) and an Li 6 PS 5 Cl (LPSCl) solid electrolyte (SE) was evaluated during initial charge/discharge cycles. After validating the cell performance against a conventional pouch cell operated at high compression, intermittent galvanostatic cycling was performed, and XPS data were recorded as a function of state of charge (SOC). Upon the initial charge of the cell to ≈3.3 V Li , the LPSCl appears to decompose into LiCl, Li 3 PS 4 , and polysulfides, whose amount gradually increases with potential. Upon further charge, at a potential higher than ≈3.8 V Li , initially, present sulfate and sulfite impurities decompose, and at ≈74% SOC (corresponding to a cathode potential of ≈4.10 V Li ), surface reconstruction of the CAM particles due to lattice oxygen release is detected. In addition, at potentials beyond ≈4.6 V Li , a decrease of the S 1s counts of the sum of the LPSCl, the thiophosphate, and polysulfide species suggests the formation of elemental sulfur that is lost via sublimation into the vacuum chamber.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Weakly Solvating Electrolyte to Enable Lithium- and Manganese-Rich Cathode-Based Li-Ion Batteries

Traditional ethylene carbonate (EC)-based electrolytes exhibit strong solvation power at the surface of the layered transition metal oxide cathodes, which accelerates transition metal dissolution. The subsequent migration and deposition of dissolved transition metal species on the anode surface lead to significant capacity fading. To overcome this difficulty, we report a weakly solvating, all-fluorinated electrolyte designed to mitigate transition metal dissolution. For the first time, the role of electrolyte solvation in suppressing transition metal dissolution is systematically investigated. The tailored electrolyte significantly reduces transition metal dissolution and enhances the electrochemical performance of Li- and Mn-rich (LMR) cathode/graphite cells. This solvation-modulating strategy offers a broadly applicable framework for stabilizing interphases in other earth-abundant cathode chemistries, which similarly demand kinetic protection against interfacial degradation.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Stable-Cycling Sustainable Na-Ion Batteries with Olivine Iron Phosphate Cathode in an Ether Electrolyte

Sustainable batteries using nontoxic, earth-abundant, and low-cost materials are key to decarbonization. Olivine NaFePO 4 fulfills these criteria, is attractive for Na-ion batteries, and can be derived from LiFePO 4 recycled from Li-ion battery wastes. Critical knowledge is needed for transforming LiFePO 4 to NaFePO 4 to enable such a sustainable, green engineering path toward high-performance Na-ion batteries. Herein, we report on the development of a stable-cycling, sustainable olivine iron phosphate-based Na-ion battery empowered by an improved understanding of materials transformation and electrolyte chemistry. First, we found that the conventional carbonate electrolyte with fluoroethylene carbonate additive causes an additional plateau (~2.4 V) at the end of the discharge process of the FePO 4 ||Na metal cell, leading to lower initial discharge capacity and voltage. This result shows that the voltage profile is influenced by not only intrinsic materials phase transformation during battery cycling but also the electrolyte additives and interphases formed. With the 1 M NaPF 6 diglyme electrolyte, we achieved an excellent capacity retention of 96% and 98% after 500 cycles at 1 and 5 C, respectively. Second, we chemically sodiated FePO 4 to form single-phase Na 0.9 FePO 4 . Na 0.9 FePO 4 ||hard carbon full cells demonstrated a remarkable capacity retention of ~84% at 3 and 5 C after 1000 cycles. The successful implementation of hard carbon, which can be derived from biomass waste, will further improve the sustainability of energy storage technologies. Our research demonstrates that electrolyte chemistry influences the voltage profile of phase-changing electrodes and provides effective electrolyte and full-cell design solutions for stable-cycling NaFePO 4 .

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Nucleation-promoting and growth-limiting synthesis of disordered rock-salt Li-ion cathode materials

Disordered rock-salt oxides and oxyfluorides are promising positive electrode materials for high-performance lithium-ion batteries free of nickel and cobalt. However, conventional synthesis methods rely on post-synthesis pulverization to achieve cycling-appropriate particle sizes, offering limited control over particle microstructure and crystallinity. This accelerates degradation and complicates secondary particle processing. Here we present a synthesis strategy that enhances nucleation while suppressing particle growth and agglomeration across various disordered rock-salt compositions, including lithium–manganese–titanium oxide, lithium–manganese–niobium oxide, and lithium–nickel–titanium oxide systems. Applied to Li 1.2 Mn 0.4 Ti 0.4 O 2 , this method yields highly crystalline, well-dispersed sub-200 nm particles that form homogeneous electrode films with stable cycling behavior. Tested in cells with lithium metal as the counter electrode, these electrodes deliver ~200 mAh/g with 85% capacity retention relative to the first cycle after 100 cycles (20 mA/g, 1.5–4.8 V), and an average discharge voltage loss of 4.8 mV per cycle, compared to 38.6% retention and 7.5 mV loss per cycle for electrodes derived from pulverized solid-state particles. This approach suggests a route to enhance the performance and durability of disordered rock-salt electrodes for sustainable lithium-ion batteries.

Batteries↗
DOE OSTI2025

Strain-associated nanoscale fluctuating lithium transport within single-crystalline LiNi 1/3 Mn 1/3 Co 1/3 O 2 cathode particles

Solid-state lithium diffusion dynamics are critical for the rate capability and longevity of Li-ion batteries. Conventionally, nanoscale lithium diffusion within individual battery particles has been simplified as being primarily driven by concentration gradients, despite the associated processes inducing local lattice expansion, contraction, and strain fields. Using operando scanning transmission soft X-ray microscopy with high spatial resolution and chemical sensitivity to track nanoscale intraparticle lithium transport, and post-cycling Bragg coherent diffraction X-ray imaging to directly reveal three-dimensional intraparticle strain fields, we uncover strain-associated lithium transport dynamics within single-crystalline LiNi 1/3 Mn 1/3 Co 1/3 O 2 (scNMC) particles during cycling. Contrary to the expected thermodynamic solid-solution behavior of scNMC, our observations reveal near-uniform but fluctuating regions of lithium-dense and lithium-dilute areas during cycling. These fluctuations suggest that nanoscale lithium diffusion can proceed counter to concentration gradients. Additionally, we demonstrate that an increased presence of lithium-dilute regions near the surface enhances lithium surface insertion kinetics, emphasizing the importance of controlling surface lithium distribution to improve rate performance. Our study provides insights into nanoscale solid-state ion transport, with potential applications in batteries, solid-state fuel cells, and memristors.

Lee, Danwon [Seoul National Univ. (Korea, Republic↗
DOE OSTI2025

Scaling deep learning for material imaging with a pseudo 3D model for domain transfer

The recent introduction of deep learning methods for image processing has greatly advanced the characterization of materials using three-dimensional (3D) X-ray imaging techniques. However, deep learning models often have difficulty performing consistently across images owing to unavoidable variations in imaging conditions, which create inconsistencies even for the same material. As a result, networks must frequently be retrained for new datasets, limiting their applicability and generalization. Thus, it is critical to reduce the variations between images to enable a single model to process multiple datasets. Herein, we introduce P3T-Net, a pseudo-3D domain transfer network that transfers diverse 3D images into a uniform domain before processing using deep learning models. Remarkably, P3T-Net enables the reuse of previously trained networks for processing new images and considerably reduces the computational cost of transferring 3D images across domains. These unique capabilities were demonstrated in the following scenarios: (i) image enhancement of fast scans for geological rock and hydrogen fuel cells, (ii) enhancement of images to match the quality of multi-source imaging for lithium-ion batteries, (iii) accurate segmentation of images captured under different conditions, and (iv) tera-scale 3D transfer (10 11 voxels) on a single GPU. Overall, the proposed approach addresses cross-domain inconsistencies across various materials and conditions, thereby enabling more robust and generalizable deep learning solutions for a wide range of material imaging tasks.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Controlled large-area lithium deposition to reduce swelling of high-energy lithium metal pouch cells in liquid electrolytes

Lithium (Li) metal battery technology, renowned for its high energy density, faces practical challenges, particularly concerning large volume change and cell swelling. Despite the profound impact of external pressure on cell performance, there is a notable gap in research regarding the interplay between external pressure and the electroplating behaviours of Li+ in large-format pouch cells. Here we delve into the impact of externally applied pressure on electroplating and stripping of Li in 350 Wh kg –1 pouch cells. Employing a hybrid design, we monitor and quantify self-generated pressures, correlating them with observed charge–discharge processes. A two-stage cycling process is proposed, revealing controlled pouch cell swelling of less than 10%, comparable to state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries. Finally, the pressure distribution across the cell surface unveils a complex Li+ detour behaviour during electroplating, highlighting the need for innovative strategies to address uneven Li plating and enhance Li metal battery technology.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Exploring a new synthesis route to lithium-excess disordered rock salt (DRX) cathode materials

Lithium-excess disordered rock salt (DRX) materials are promising candidates for Co/Ni-free Li-ion cathodes due to their high specific energy (800+ W h kg −1 ) and compositional flexibility. DRX cathodes are typically synthesized using solid-state reactions, which are difficult to scale and provide little-to-no control over particle morphology. Here, to address this bottleneck, the present study reports a two-step, solution-based reaction route to prepare Mn/Ti-based DRX oxyfluoride cathodes with nominal compositions of Li 1.25 Mn 0.5 Ti 0.3 O 1.95 F 0.05 and Li 1.35 Mn 0.7 Ti 0.1 O 1.85 F 0.15 . More specifically, a glycine–nitrate combustion reaction is used to produce a lithiated transition metal oxide, which is further reacted with LiF to produce high-purity DRX powders. Remarkably, this route yields 80–90% pure DRX after annealing for 1 h at 800–1000 °C, and 19 F solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) spectra demonstrate that F− anions are successfully incorporated into the DRX structure. Cathodes prepared using this approach exhibit promising electrochemical performance, with Li 1.35 Mn 0.7 Ti 0.1 O 1.85 F 0.15 attaining reversible capacities ∼210 mA h g −1 and moderate cycling stability in half cells (65% capacity retention over 150 cycles). Overall, these results demonstrate that utilizing novel metal oxide precursors presents a viable and largely unexplored method to produce high-performance Co/Ni-free DRX cathodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Novel architectures for stabilization of Mn-rich cathodes: a high-valent approach to interfaces

Lithium- and manganese-rich (LMR) layered oxides continue to generate significant interest as promising, earth-abundant cathode materials for next-generation Li-ion batteries. In spite of their attractive capacity and cost advantages, a few long-standing challenges still hamper their widespread adoption, with manganese dissolution being one of the most persistent and vexing issues. In the present study, we explore the incorporation of Sb5+ as a high-valent cation and exploit its ability to form unique lithium-rich surface and grain-boundary structures that can integrate directly with the LMR lattice. When synthesized under appropriate conditions, Sb5+ orders strongly with Li+ to form localized Li+–Sb5+ motifs, which play a key role in restructuring the surface and grain-boundary regions. These restructured regions act as protective, stabilizing entities that substantially suppress electrolyte-driven side reactions, reduce impedance growth, limit manganese dissolution, and help retain cyclable lithium during long-term electrochemical cycling. Further improvements of the electrochemical performance of Sb-treated LMR were achieved using a well-known additive to mitigate Mn dissolution and highlight the synergistic effects of combined strategies. Overall, this work showcases how high-valent elements such as Sb5+ can help tailor the surface and intergranular regions and work in synergy with other modifiers (e.g. electrolyte additives), enhancing the cycle life and practical viability of LMR cathodes for use in graphite-based full cells.

Mallick, Subhadip [Argonne National Laboratory (AN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Effects of Trigger Method on Fire Propagation during the Thermal Runaway Process in Li-ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are prone to fire hazards due to the possibility of thermal runaway propagation. During battery product development and subsequent safety tests for design validation and safety certification, the thermal runaway onset is triggered by various test methods such as nail penetration, thermal ramp, or external short circuit. This failure initiation method affects the amount of heat contributions and the composition of gas generations. This study compares two such trigger methods, external heating and using a thermally-activated internal short circuit device (ISCD). The effects of the trigger method on total heat generation are experimentally investigated within 18650 cylindrical cells at single cell level as well as at multiple cell configuration level. The severity of failure was observed to be worse for cells with ISCDs at single cell level, whereas quite the opposite results were observed at multiple cell configuration level. A preliminary numerical analysis was performed to better understand the battery safety performance with respect to thermal runaway trigger methods and heat transfer conditions.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Multiscale approaches for optimizing the impact of strain on Na-ion battery cycle life

Abstract The high costs and geopolitical challenges inherent to the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery supply chain have driven a rising interest in the development of sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries as a potential alternative. Unfortunately, the larger ionic radius of Na limits the reversibility of cycling because of the extensive atomic rearrangements that accompany Na-ion insertion, which in turn limit diffusion and charging speed, and lead to rapid degradation of the electrodes. The Center for Strain Optimization for Renewable Energy (STORE) was established to address these challenges and develop new electrode materials for Na-ion cells. This article discusses the current state-of-the-art materials used in Na-ion cells and several directions that STORE believes are critical to understand and control the structural and volumetric changes during the reversible (de)insertion of large cations. Graphical abstract Highlights Understanding the fundamental way materials respond to localized strains at the atomic length-scale is a critical first step in the development of highly reversible, long cycle life, Na-ion insertion hosts. This perspective explores a variety of methods that can be employed to mitigate the detrimental effects of large strain. The insights gained from these investigations should help lay the foundation for the creation of more economical and sustainable batteries that could have immediate impact on global energy infrastructure. Discussion Although there is near universal agreement that electrochemical energy storage must be an integral part of a green-energy future, there is less agreement about how to reduce the cost of energy storage. Replacing high-cost lithium-ion cells with lower-cost sodium-ion batteries is one option frequently considered in future energy models, but the details of what can be achieve with optimized sodium cell performance remains unclear. Here we posit that developing methods to mitigating strain on the electrode particle length scale is a key factor for achieving long-cycle-life sodium-ion batteries. Mitigating strain on the atomic scale suppress electrode-level volume change. Allowing for fast cycling in materials without the problems of electrode cracking or delamination. We further posit that understanding volume change in sodium-ion electrodes at a fundamental level will lead to the designing new sodium-ion electrode materials that will allow for efficient, stable, lower-cost energy storage.

Brady, Michael J.↗
DOE OSTI2024

CRADA Number NFE-21-08827 with DayLyte, Inc. (CRADA Final Report)

DayLyte Batteries is developing an aqueous Sodium-Air battery made with abundant materials while being half to a third the weight of Li-ion to power electric aircraft, electric vehicles and provide renewable energy on demand. To make this battery practical, DayLyte is developing a thin film ceramic Nasicon solid electrolyte amenable to rapid scaleup as well as a protective coating that will protect the solid electrolyte from 50wt% NaOH during the battery’s end-of-discharge while still allowing Na-ions to pass back and forth. If the thin film solid electrolyte and stable coating can be developed it will open the world to step change in battery performance all while not sacrificing the environment on the way. The project was designed to first focus on making and characterizing the Nasicon membrane followed by measuring its electrochemical performance, then assembling a full cell, optimizing its NaOH stability and then optimize the overall prototype design. Over the past two years, we have significantly improved the Nasicon film uniformity, demonstrated protective ligands that are stable in 50wt% NaOH by measuring no mass change with a quartz crystal microbalance, tested different heating methods like tube furnace and rapid heating and developed glassy carbon coatings on the current collector to prevent Nasicon-current collector alloying. We have found that getting film uniformity as measured by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is difficult because of different factors like surface roughness, deposition uniformity and heat treatment time and uniformity. The glassy carbon coating should significantly reduce the surface roughness and by tuning the coating conditions the film deposition uniformity improves and using an automated heating method should lead to much improved film uniformity.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

CRADA Final Report: Ultralong Cycle Life and Ultrafast Charging Batteries to Electrify High Duty-Cycle, Mobile Platforms

As part of the Cyclotron Road program, Tyfast Energy Corp. aimed to investigate the Li 3 V 2 O 5 (LVO) anode material for next generation lithium batteries. State of the art and fast charging lithium-ion batteries are based on the lithium titanate or Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 (LTO) anode chemistry. LTO cells demonstrate fast charging times (<6 mins), long cycle life (>20,000 cycles), but at the expense of very low energy density (<200Wh/L, <80Wh/kg). Silicon anodes have the promise of achieving fast charging times, however, issues with cycling stability in combination with fast charging is unknown. LVO has unique properties that enable new performance window for lithium batteries. First, LVO operates at an average potential of 0.6V vs. Li/Li + , well above the Li-metal plating region allowing ultrafast charge capability without sacrificing safety. Second, the LVO has a high specific capacity of 250 mAh/g making battery pack energy density equivalent with current high-energy Li-ion chemistries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Novel One-Step Production of Carbon-Coated Sn Nanoparticles for High-Capacity Anodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries offer the highest energy density of any currently available portable energy storage technology. By using different anode materials, these batteries could have an even greater energy density. One material, tin, has a theoretical lithium capacity (994 mAh/g) over three-times higher than commercial carbon anode materials. Unfortunately, to achieve this high capacity, bulk tin undergoes a large volume expansion, and the material pulverizes during cycling, giving a rapid capacity fade. To mitigate this issue, tin must be scaled down to the nano-level to take advantage of unique micromechanics at the nanoscale. Synthesis techniques for Sn nanoparticle anodes are costly and overly complicated for commercial production. A novel one-step process for producing carbon-coated Sn nanoparticles via spark plasma erosion (SPE) shows great promise as a simple, inexpensive production method. The SPE method, characterization of the resulting particles, and their high-capacity reversible electrochemical performance as anodes are described. With only a 10% addition of these novel SPE carbon-coated Sn particles, one anode composition demonstrated a reversible capacity of ~460 mAh/g, achieving the theoretical capacity of that particular electrode formulation. These SPE carbon-coated Sn nanoparticles are drop-in ready for present commercial lithium-ion anode processing and would provide a ~10% increase in the total capacity of current commercial lithium-ion cells.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

One-Step Spark Plasma Erosion Processing of Carbon-Coated Sn-Si Nanoparticles for Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes

High density portable energy storage is desirable owing to the energy requirements of portable electronics and electric vehicles. The Li-ion battery’s high energy density could be even further improved through the utilization of alternative materials (instead of carbon) for the anode, such as Sn or Si. Nonetheless, the large volume expansion upon lithiation, up to ~300% for Li 22 Si 5 , causes pulverization and rapid capacity degradation during cycling. Sn also forms a Li 22 Sn 5 compound with the equivalent stoichiometric Li capacity but with enhanced ductility. Nano-sized Si and Sn have demonstrated distinctive nanoscale properties, facilitating the retention of higher capacities, particularly when coated with carbon, which improves mechanical stability. To date, the methods of synthesizing coated Si, Sn, or Si-Sn alloyed nanoparticles are complicated, costly, and not readily scalable to meet the demands of cost-effective manufacturing. Spark plasma erosion in a hydrocarbon dielectric has been explored as a one-step process to produce Sn-Si alloy nanoparticles coated with a thin carbon film, offering a scalable and cost-effective processing route. The resulting Sn-Si particles exhibited a bi-modal size distribution at ~5 nm and ~500 nm and were carbon-coated, as intended, from the hydrocarbon dielectric breakdown. The spark-eroded nanoparticles were thoroughly characterized using TEM/EDS, XPS, AES, SSNMR, and TGA, and their improved electrochemical performance was assessed through half-cell experiments.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Africa Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) Capacity Building Li-Ion Battery Degradation and Performance [Slides]

This presentation is intended for power system engineers, operators, and planners who work on isolated power systems that have (or may soon have) high levels of power generation coming from wind turbines, solar farms, and battery energy storage, which are collectively referred to as inverter-based resources. It describes the basics of lithium-ion battery energy storage systems and lithium-ion battery degradation. Battery degradation at the cell-level is explained, and then the structure and degradation of battery energy storage systems is also explained. This is intended to help power system engineers, operators, and planners to understand and effectively utilize battery energy storage systems.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗