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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

2D photofragmentation LIF imaging of H 2 O 2 and HO 2 in the effluent of an atmospheric-pressure plasma jet: effects of solid and liquid interfaces

Two-dimensional (2D) absolute measurements of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) and approximations of the hydroperoxyl radical (HO 2 ) in the effluent of a COST Reference Microplasma Jet operated with a He/H 2 O feed gas are presented. Gas-phase densities are mapped using photofragmentation laser-induced fluorescence (PF-LIF) under three boundary conditions: open effluent, a solid target, and a liquid target. A novel method is presented for separating PF-LIF signals from H 2 O 2 and HO 2 using comparative measurements in oxygen-rich and oxygen-free environments to exploit the preferential formation of HO 2 in the presence of molecular oxygen. This separation strategy is supported by results from a plug-flow plasma chemistry model. Measured densities agree closely with model predictions in both magnitude and trend, while the 2D experimental distributions provide additional insight into the spatial dependencies of these species. In particular, the results show distinct differences in species transport depending on the target type: solid surfaces induce lateral deflection and reduced centerline densities, whereas liquid interfaces promote axial accumulation and higher near-axis concentrations.

atmospheric-pressure plasma jet (APPJ)↗
DOE OSTI2026

The MUSE Target Chamber Post Veto

The Muon Scattering Experiment (MUSE) was developed to address the proton radius puzzle through simultaneous electron–proton and muon-proton scattering using the Paul Scherrer Institute’s πM1 secondary beamline. MUSE uses a large-solid-angle, non-magnetic spectrometer to detect beam particles scattering from a liquid hydrogen cell contained within a vacuum chamber. Due to the large scattering windows, the structural integrity of the chamber is supported by posts located at small scattering angles. While out of the acceptance, particles in the tails of the beam distribution can strike these posts, causing a significant trigger background. We describe the design and performance of the Target Chamber Post Veto (TCPV) detector installed inside the vacuum chamber to remove these background events at the trigger level.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Refueling Infrastructure Scoping and Feasibility Assessment for Hydrogen Rail Applications

The feasibility and component cost of hydrogen rail refueling infrastructure is examined. Example reference stations can inform future studies on components and systems specifically for hydrogen rail refueling facilities. All of the 5 designs considered assumed the bulk storage of liquid hydrogen on-site, from which either gaseous or liquid hydrogen would be dispensed. The first design was estimated to refuel 10 multiple unit trains per day, each train containing 260 kg of gaseous hydrogen at 350 bar on-board. The second base design targeted the refueling of 50 passenger locomotives, each with 400 kg of gaseous hydrogen on-board at 350 bar. Variations from this basic design were made to consider the effect of two different filling times, two different hydrogen compression methods, and two different station design approaches. For each design variation, components were sized, approximate costs were estimated for major components, and physical layouts were created. For both gaseous hydrogen-dispensing base designs, the design of direct-fill using a cryopump design was the lowest cost due to the high cost of the cascade storage system and gas compressor. The last three base designs all assumed that liquid hydrogen was dispensed into tender cars for freight locomotives that required 7,500 kg of liquid hydrogen, and the three different designs assumed that 5, 50, or 200 tender cars were refueled every day. The total component costs are very different for each design, because each design has a very different dispensing capacity. The total component cost for these three designs are driven by the cost of the liquid hydrogen tank; additionally, delivering that much liquid hydrogen to the refueling facility may not be practical. Many of the designs needed the use of multiple evaporators, compressors, and cryopumps operating in parallel to meet required flow rates. In the future, the components identified here can be improved and scaled-up to better fit the needs of heavy-duty refueling facilities. This study provides basic feasibility and first-order design guidance for hydrogen refueling facilities serving emerging rail applications.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Novel Framework to Evaluate the Costs and Potential of Bioenergy in Decarbonization of the U.S. Economy

The long-term strategy of the United States targets reaching economy-wide net-zero emissions by 2050 and a carbon-neutral electricity grid by 2035 (U.S. Department of State and U.S. Executive Office of the President, 2021). Meeting these targets would require considerable changes to the energy system. Some key characteristics of illustrative net-zero energy systems include increased penetration of renewable energy and carbon sources, use of CO2 capture and storage (CCS) in hard-to-abate sectors, and a greater role for energy carriers such as electricity and hydrogen (Davis et al, 2018). Another common feature of such energy systems is the need for carbon dioxide removal (CDR) approaches (Horowitz et al, 2022). Across all these characteristics of net-zero energy systems, bioenergy and biomass feedstock is anticipated to play an important role. Biomass feedstock serves as a renewable carbon source. This can enable conversion of such feedstock into fuels and energy carriers for hard-to-abate sectors such as aviation. Indeed, the U.S. Government has a target to meet all jet fuel demand by 2050 from sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), where biofuel pathways are likely to have an important role (EERE, 2020). Bioenergy is also highly versatile with the possibility to convert feedstock into electricity, hydrogen, liquid fuels, heat or high-value products, based on biomass type, demand and technology availability (Clarke et al, 2022). Combination of bioenergy with CCS can also nominally deliver CDR (Fuhrman et al, 2023). As such, the share of bioenergy is expected to grow by at least five time across scenarios studied for the long-term strategy of the U.S. between 2020 and 2050 (Horowitz et al, 2022). Notwithstanding the role of bioenergy in the energy systems, its deployment, costs and scalability are influenced by a number of factors. Some of these factors pertain to policy interventions such as imposition of a binding decarbonization target either at an economy-wide level or the sectoral level. Resource availability and type of biomass feedstock also varies considerably across regions. From a technological perspective, the readiness of bioenergy conversion pathways is subject to high variability. This influences the costs of deployment. Moreover, the sourcing of feedstock, grid carbon intensity, and co-product handling approaches all affect the life cycle efficacy of bioenergy. The latter, in turn, is particularly important in determining the extent to which bioenergy with CCS or BECCS can effectively deliver CDR (Fajardy and Mac Dowell, 2017).

air emission↗
DOE OSTI2023

Production of zirconium-88 via proton irradiation of metallic yttrium and preparation of target for neutron transmission measurements at DICER

Abstract A process for the production of tens to hundreds of GBq amounts of zirconium-88 ( 88 Zr) using proton beams on yttrium was developed. For this purpose, yttrium metal targets (≈20 g) were irradiated in a ~16 to 34 MeV proton beam at a beam current of 100–200 µA at the Los Alamos Isotope Production Facility (IPF). The 88 Zr radionuclide was produced and separated from the yttrium targets using hydroxamate resin with an elution yield of 94(5)% (1σ). Liquid DCl solution in D 2 O was selected as a suitable 88 Zr sample matrix due to the high neutron transmission of deuterium compared to hydrogen and an even distribution of 88 Zr in the sample matrix. The separated 88 Zr was dissolved in DCl and 8 µL of the obtained solution was transferred to a tungsten sample can with a 1.2 mm diameter hole using a syringe and automated filling station inside a hot cell. Neutron transmission of the obtained 88 Zr sample was measured at the Device for Indirect Capture Experiments on Radionuclides (DICER).

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Next Generation Multi-Use Heavy-Duty High-Flow Direct-Fill Hydrogen Refueling Station with Standardized Design (CRADA Final Report)

The Contractor will build a liquid hydrogen (LH2) fueling station model that is capable of simulating the amount of hydrogen transferred from the liquid storage tank to the vehicle, depending on the station’s design and control scheme. This modeling work will allow the Parties to seek the design and control scheme of an LH2 station that can fill a targeted number of vehicles while meeting a time-average flow rate of 10 kg/min for each fill. While evaluating a high dispensing performance station design and control scheme, the Contractor will analyze the design and control scheme are economically viable.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2023

Simulation and Optimization of Volatile Fatty Acid Upgrading Strategies for Sustainable Transportation Fuel Production

The multicomponent nature of and variability of biomass makes chemical upgrading via a single process stream to a single end use infeasible for most feedstocks. A more promising approach is to identify upgrading strategies (encompassing bioprocessing, catalysis, and separations) which valorize varied biomass fractions to distinct products to which each is best suited. A robust procedure to carry out this goal should incorporate comparison of various upgrading procedures as well as suitability of products to a slate of identified end uses. We applied this strategy to one biomass-derived feedstock, volatile fatty acids (VFAs) derived from wet waste arrested anaerobic digestion, by developing a computer program, VFA Upgrading to Liquid Transportation fUels Refinery Estimation (VULTURE) which evaluates VFA catalytic upgrading to liquid transportation fuels. VULTURE considers multiple separations, catalysis (ketonization, hydrogenation), and fuel application options, generating hundreds of candidate scenarios for a given VFA stream, then selects several promising strategies that optimize bio-content of products with properties best suited for target fuel types. We find that VFAs are upgraded most efficiently when separate light alcohol (C3-6) and heavy hydrocarbon or alcohol (C7-13) fractions are targeted to create gasoline and heavy-duty (diesel or jet) fuels or fuel blends. Surrogate property testing of VULTURE-recommended fuels reveals that most predictive models employed are robust, while rigorous process simulation shows that the simple unit operation assumptions used in VULTURE are largely accurate, especially for heavy-duty fuel synthesis. Techno-economic and life-cycle analyses show that VFA-derived fuels are profitable and have dramatically (=57%) lower carbon intensities than fossil analogs.

BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Performance Testing of the 4kW ESR 2 Refrigerator at JLab

Abstract The End Station Refrigerator 2 (ESR2), a refurbished cryoplant, will replace the ESR1. ESR2 is comprised of the cold box and compressors from the Superconducting Super Collider’s 4 kW, 4.5 K ASST-A plant. It also features a new 10 kL liquid helium dewar, a cryogenic distribution system and new control and utility systems. This plant was reconfigured to provide a cold helium supply at 15 K, 12 K, and 8 K for the experimental hall’s hydrogen targets. The most significant load will be during the MOLLER experiment, which will see a total hydrogen target load of 5 kW at 15 K. This paper details the commissioning results of the 4.5 K refrigeration system in various modes (maximum refrigeration, maximum liquefaction, and a 50/50 mix) at both 100 % and 50 % capacity. We will also evaluate the performance with an expected MOLLER load. Current performance will be compared with the historical commissioning data from the ASST-A plant.

Perry, C. [Cryogenics Department, Thomas Jefferson↗
DOE OSTI2021

Proton conductors for heavy-duty vehicle fuel cells

Fuel cells utilize the chemical energy of liquid or gaseous fuels to generate electricity. As fuel cells extend their territory to include heavy-duty vehicles, new demands for proton conductors, a critical component of fuel cells, have emerged. A near-term need is ensuring the chemical and mechanical stability of proton exchange membranes to enable long lifetime vehicles. Therefore, in the mid-term, achieving stable conductivity of proton conductors under hot (>100°C) and dynamic fuel cell operating conditions is desirable. In the long term, targeting high thermal stability and tolerance to water enables the utilization of high energy density liquid fuels that will increase pay-load space for heavy-duty vehicles. This article presents our perspective on these near-, mid-, and long-term targets for proton conductors of heavy-duty fuel cells.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Electrolyte Assisted Hydrogen Storage Reactions (Final Technical Report)

The goal of this project is to address critical deficiencies of hydrogen storage systems design based on hydride materials, as originally identified by the DOE Hydrogen Storage Engineering Center of Excellence (HSECoE). Baseline hydrogen storage technology presently relies on compressed gas operating at ~700 bar pressure, which imposes huge demands on fuel delivery, fuel storage and system cost. For onboard storage applications, Type IV composite overwrapped pressure vessels and associated balance-of-plant components are necessary to ensure safe and effective fuel delivery. However, such compressed gas technology falls well-short of volumetric targets even at 700 bar, given the density of gaseous molecular hydrogen is only 40 g·H2/l at ambient temperatures. One alternative is to utilize hydride materials which accommodate hydrogen in atomic form. Certain hydrides can attain volumetric densities that exceed the density of liquid H2 (71 g·H2/l) while also offering advantageous thermodynamic properties. However, such material systems presently rely on solid-state diffusion for hydrogen release, which has a very high activation barrier for atom mobility and, thus, requires impractically-high temperatures for operation. The initial focus of our research effort is to employ and demonstrate an electrolyte system to mediate the diffusion of species at lower temperatures relevant to transportation applications, with the goal of establishing the critical factors necessary to obviate the need for high-temperature release of hydrogen. A parallel goal of this exploratory effort is to determine the effectiveness of modest electrochemical potentials in overcoming any endothermic requirements for hydrogen release in a similar electrolyte-promoted scenario.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Optimizing the Heisenberg Vortex Tube for Hydrogen Cooling (Final Technical Report)

Hydrogen utilization at Plug Power sites ranges between 70-93% with the remainder vented and lost to the atmosphere. The goal of this project was to improve hydrogen utilization at Plug Power fulfillment centers via the patented Heisenberg vortex tube (HVT). The HVT combines conventional counterflow vortex tubes with para-orthohydrogen conversion catalyst to allow the cooling of hydrogen flows with no moving parts or external energy inputs. In year 1 of this project the HVT was evaluated to improve hydrogen utilization via the following concepts: 1) increasing liquid hydrogen pump volumetric efficiency by 20% through vapor separation and subcooling of the liquid, 2) reducing liquid hydrogen storage tank boil-off losses by 20% through thermal vapor shielding (TVS), and 3) increase isentropic efficiency of supercritical hydrogen expansion at 40-50 K, from 31% to over 40%. The TVS concept was selected as the most favorable application for further development. While the conceptual analysis was underway, the cryocatalysis hydrogen experiment facility (CHEF) was retrofitted with a new cryocooler, higher pressure condenser tanks, and in-situ fiber-optic Raman probes for ortho-parahydrogen composition analysis at the inlets and outlets of the HVT. To our knowledge this is the first in-situ implementation of cryogenic Raman probes for ortho-parahydrogen analysis. Subsequent testing of catalyzed and non-catalyzed HVT identified a low flow rate, high-conversion efficacy regime well suited for TVS development. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), Reduced order modeling (ROM), and quantum Monte Carlo atomistic simulations were applied to optimize the design of the HVT implemented for TVS. The simulations and analysis identified a ruthenium-based catalyst as the most optimal for high conversion with little pressure losses and was matched to experimental measurements. These results indicated the design could achieve the 20% boil-off reduction target. An HVT field-trial was designed and constructed by Plug Power and implemented at a customer site. However, budget limitations reduced the amount of catalyst that could be applied to the HVT. With the reduced amount of catalyst, CFD analysis estimated about 3% reduction in boil-off. A similar amount of boil-off reduction was observed during preliminary measurements during tank commissioning. However, the results have a large margin for error and were operated at relatively low tank temperatures when the HVT has the lowest potential for improvement. This project demonstrated the use of para-orthohydrogen catalysis for reducing liquid hydrogen tank boil-off losses. The field trial system is anticipated to provide long-term experimental measurements on tank operational performance that will allow Plug Power to instrument additional tanks in the future. Recommendations for future work include the development of higher activity, lower cost para-orthohydrogen conversion catalyst for use in the HVT. Tank process optimizations could maximize the efficacy of the HVT and further improve hydrogen utilization.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2026

Hydrogen release from aqueous based LOHCs: The role of water in the potassium formate/bicarbonate cycle

Here, in this study, we evaluate the chemical and physical properties governing the potential round-trip efficiency of an aqueous formate/bicarbonate cycle for hydrogen storage, with a particular focus on potassium formate as a potential liquid hydrogen carrier. Using thermodynamic parameters, we predict the conversion of formate to bicarbonate across varying temperatures and pressures, revealing that hydrogen release is relatively insensitive to temperature but highly dependent on pressure. Our findings indicate that hydrogen uptake is highly efficient, whereas hydrogen release poses a greater challenge, necessitating detailed optimization to enhance round-trip efficiency. We calculate the solubility limits of bicarbonate salts influenced by the common ion effect to enable the prediction of target conversion ranges that prevent the precipitation of potassium bicarbonate in a reactor. Furthermore, the energy efficiency of hydrogen release was assessed based on the heating requirements of the aqueous solutions. This analysis maximizes the round-trip efficiency by balancing the solubility limits of bicarbonate, the heat capacity of aqueous formate solutions and conversion based on thermodynamic equilibria. Taking these factors into consideration we suggest reaction conditions that could be utilized in a systems analysis to calculate the levelized cost of storage using the bicarbonate/formate cycle at commercial scales.

common ion effect↗
DOE OSTI2022

CHESS: The future direct geometry spectrometer at the second target station

CHESS, chopper spectrometer examining small samples, is a planned direct geometry neutron chopper spectrometer designed to detect and analyze weak signals intrinsic to small cross sections (e.g., small mass, small magnetic moments, or neutron absorbing materials) in powders, liquids, and crystals. CHESS is optimized to enable transformative investigations of quantum materials, spin liquids, thermoelectrics, battery materials, and liquids. The broad dynamic range of the instrument is also well suited to study relaxation processes and excitations in soft and biological matter. The 15 Hz repetition rate of the Second Target Station at the Spallation Neutron Source enables the use of multiple incident energies within a single source pulse, greatly expanding the information gained in a single measurement. Furthermore, the high flux grants an enhanced capability for polarization analysis. This enables the separation of nuclear from magnetic scattering or coherent from incoherent scattering in hydrogenous materials over a large range of energy and momentum transfer. This paper presents optimizations and technical solutions to address the key requirements envisioned in the science case and the anticipated uses of this instrument.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Construction of Boron‐ and Nitrogen‐Enriched Nanoporous π‐Conjugated Networks Towards Enhanced Hydrogen Activation

Abstract Boron‐enriched scaffolds have demonstrated unique features and promising performance in the field of catalysis towards the activation of small gas molecules. However, there is still a lack of facile approaches capable of achieving high B doping and abundant porous channels in the targeted catalysts. Herein, construction of boron‐ and nitrogen‐enriched nanoporous π‐conjugated networks (BN‐NCNs) was achieved via a facile ionothermal polymerization procedure with hexaazatriphenylenehexacarbonitrile [HAT(CN) 6 ] sodium borohydride as the starting materials. The as‐produced BN‐NCN scaffolds were featured by high heteroatoms doping (B up to 23 wt. % and N: up to 17 wt. %) and permanent porosity (surface area up to 759 m 2 g −1 mainly contributed by micropores). With the unsaturated bonded B species acting as the active Lewis acid sites and defected N species acting as the active Lewis base sites, those BN‐NCNs delivered attractive catalytic performance towards H 2 activation/dissociation in both gaseous and liquid phase, acting as efficient metal‐free heterogeneous frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) catalysts in hydrogenation procedures.

Li, Meijia↗
DOE OSTI2026

Autonomous Hydrogen Fueling Station

This project “Autonomous Hydrogen Fueling Station” covered the autonomous refueling with both gaseous hydrogen and liquid hydrogen. The part on gaseous hydrogen focused on the development of an autonomous robotic fueling arm that would couple to a fuel cell engine for hydrogen refueling without guidance from the forklift operator and budget period. Research was also covered for the robotic fueling with a commercial vehicle. The second phase of the project created the baseline for an autonomous liquid hydrogen transfer system that would minimize boil off losses by operating at thermodynamically efficient state points. For the development of the robotic fueling arm, testing was conducted to establish a baseline measurement of the accuracy and repeatability of a human operator positioning a lift truck in front of a dispenser. The goal was to establish the range of motion required for an autonomous fueling mechanism to mate a hydrogen nozzle with a receptacle on a fuel cell system installed in a forklift. The final design comprised a selective compliance articulated robot arm (SCARA)-type mechanism with two arms for horizontal motion and a ball screw for vertical movement and color and LIDAR cameras were used for marker identification and proximity awareness to guide the robotic arm to its target receptacle. Initial tests resulted in 199 out of 200 successful attempts at autonomous coupling of the dispensing coupler and a fuel cell engine, without hydrogen. The dispenser prototype was modified to include tubing for both hydrogen fuel and air purge lines, but subsequent tests were confounded by the shoulder motor over current errors which limited the robot from getting to the fully inserted position to achieve a positive latch. Robotic hydrogen refueling was successfully demonstrated over 1.5 hours of testing, Plug completed 29 successful latches with an average number of 4 sequential latches before failure. However, a robot capable of placing the nozzle with more force is required for higher reliability. For budget period two, a small scale (10 kg / transfer) automated control system was designed that would operate valves to control pressure and flow of liquid nitrogen between a source and receiving tank with an aim to minimize boil off losses by operating at the most thermodynamically efficient state points. Control system logic flow and a P&ID were developed prior to system safety characterization via HAZOP. A control narrative and system state points were defined. Delays in approval for a change of project objective and procurement issues precluded the construction and test of the final prototype system.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2023

Construction of Boron- and Nitrogen-Enriched Nanoporous π-Conjugated Networks Towards Enhanced Hydrogen Activation

Boron-enriched scaffolds have demonstrated unique features and promising performance in the field of catalysis towards the activation of small gas molecules. However, there is still a lack of facile approaches capable of achieving high B doping and abundant porous channels in the targeted catalysts. Here, in this paper, construction of boron- and nitrogen-enriched nanoporous π-conjugated networks (BN-NCNs) was achieved via a facile ionothermal polymerization procedure with hexaazatriphenylenehexacarbonitrile [HAT(CN) 6 ] sodium borohydride as the starting materials. The as-produced BN-NCN scaffolds were featured by high heteroatoms doping (B up to 23 wt. % and N: up to 17 wt. %) and permanent porosity (surface area up to 759 m 2 g -1 mainly contributed by micropores). With the unsaturated bonded B species acting as the active Lewis acid sites and defected N species acting as the active Lewis base sites, those BN-NCNs delivered attractive catalytic performance towards H 2 activation/dissociation in both gaseous and liquid phase, acting as efficient metal-free heterogeneous frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) catalysts in hydrogenation procedures.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Highly-Accessible Catalysts for Durable High-Power Performance (Final Technical Report)

Reduction of costly Pt usage in proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) electrodes is one of the major challenges towards development and commercialization of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV). However, reducing the Pt loading results in increasing local mass transport fluxes, and eventual performance loss, especially at high power. In this project, a team of 4 universities, 2 companies, and a national lab came together to develop fuel cell catalysts and electrodes with high performance and durability. The were several key concepts addressed in this project. The first concept is to develop a carbon support that possess internal porosity which are believed to enhance kinetic activity of the catalysts, and yet the pore morphology allows for good reactant transport. The second concept is to improve the Pt-electrolyte interface in hope to reduce the local transport resistance. This was done by using new ionomers and ionic liquids. The last concept involves improving the catalyst stability by introducing Pt alloy catalyst with ordered intermetallic phase. The collaborative platform provided by DOE funding enabled development of a highly active and durable catalyst with performance that exceeds previous catalysts and meets the DOE targets for light duty vehicle application.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Methanol from Integrated Direct Air Capture and Ceramic Electrolysis (MIDACE)

The Methanol from Integrated Direct Air Capture and Ceramic Electrolysis (MIDACE) project advanced a novel system concept for integrating pressurized co-electrolysis of steam and crude carbon dioxide captured directly from ambient air using a sorbent technology. The co-electrolysis produced syngas provides feedstock for a gas-to-liquid methanol synthesis reactor. The system recovers waste heat from the reactor and electrolyzer into regenerating the direct air capture sorbent. The purpose of the project was to demonstrate critical integration elements of the design and perform a technical study illustrating how a large-scale installation could achieve the $800/ton program target for green methanol production. The concept addresses the program objective to consolidate operations by combining crude CO 2 cleanup, hydrogen production, and partial CO 2 reduction steps within a carbon tolerant high temperature electrolyzer. The design lowers costs by simplifying the methanol recovery cycle, reducing carbon losses from venting, reducing sensitivity to catalyst selectivity, and avoiding syngas compression.

10 SYNTHETIC FUELS↗