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Results for “Solvent dissolution”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Development of a bench-scale dissolution concept for the direct extraction of nuclear fuel

Current used nuclear fuel reprocessing efforts utilize a hydrometallurgical approach in which the UNF is dissolved in hot nitric acid followed by solvent extraction into an organic solvent to harvest target nuclides. Previous studies have shown that the dissolution and loading process could be combined into a single organic dissolution/extraction step, producing loaded organic in a single step process. This single step process also includes the advantage of selectively targeting key nuclides in the dissolution while leaving undesirable constituents as part of the undissolved solids. This process is referred to hereafter as direct extraction. Ongoing research from multiple national labs has proven the effectiveness of this technique at research scale. Therefore, potential methods to implement direct extraction at both bench and industrial scale have been developed. The key features of potential dissolver system designs were identified via the team at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and several designs based on industrial counterparts were assessed for feasibility. This report summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of multiple methods, concluding with a path forward to create multiple unique dissolver designs. The first design will be a single stage recirculating eductor mixer. The second design recommendation is a stator rotor static mixing flow loop design. Each dissolver could be utilized separately, simultaneously, or in series to answer questions surrounding reaction kinetics including residence time, provide a proof of concept for targeted extractions of specific nuclides, and inform needs for industrial scale implementation

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Electrolyte Study for High-Nickel LiNi 0.9 Mn 0.05 Co 0.05 O 2 Cathodes

With an increasing demand for intermittent renewable energy and electric vehicles, it is imperative to develop lithium-ion batteries with Earth-abundant cathode materials. Cobalt (Co) is preferred to be kept at a minimum because of its high cost and limited mining options, yet it has played an essential role in the high-performance transition metal oxides (TMOs). Herein, we report work from Argonne National Laboratory, conducted under the U.S. DoE's Vehicle Technologies Office, Deep Dive consortium on Next-Generation Cathodes, to optimize electrolytes for LiNi 0.9 Mn 0.05 Co 0.05 O 2 . LiNi 0.9 Mn 0.05 Co 0.05 O 2 is a high-Ni TMO benchmark as it outperforms most other TMOs under standard cycling conditions. In this study, we use the figure-of-merit approach to optimize electrolytes for this novel cathode material. Dual-salt carbonate electrolytes containing lithium difluorooxyphosphate and hexafluorophosphates were found to be the best for capacity retention and slowing the impedance rise. Importantly, transition metal dissolution and lithium inventory losses in the solid electrolyte interface were found to be the major causes for capacity fade.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

6 Li-loaded liquid scintillators produced by direct dissolution of compounds in diisopropylnaphthalene (DIPN)

Here, this paper describes preparation of 6 Li-loaded liquid scintillators by methods involving direct dissolution of 6Li salts in the commercial diisopropylnaphthalene (DIPN) solvent, without the formation of water-in-oil emulsions. Methods include incorporation of 6 Li that, unlike previously reported formulations, does not require additions of water or a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). Results of the conducted experiments show that dissolution of aromatic and aliphatic 6 Li salts in DIPN can be easily achieved at 0.1%–0.3% by weight of atomic 6 Li, using small additions of waterless surfactants, or mild carboxylic acids. An alternative way suggests incorporation of 6 Li as a part of a surfactant molecule that can be dissolved in DIPN without any solubilizing additions. Proposed methods enable preparation of efficient 6 Li-loaded liquid scintillators that, at a large scale of 50 cm, exhibit good pulse shape discrimination (PSD) properties combined with up to 107% of light output and up to 115% of the attenuation length measured relative to standard undoped EJ-309 liquid scintillator.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Ammonia-salt solvent promotes cellulosic biomass deconstruction under ambient pretreatment conditions to enable rapid soluble sugar production at ultra-low enzyme loadings

In this paper, we report a novel ammonia : ammonium salt solvent based pretreatment process that can rapidly dissolve crystalline cellulose into solution and eventually produce highly amorphous cellulose under near-ambient conditions. Pre-activating the cellulose I allomorph to its ammonia–cellulose swollen complex (or cellulose III allomorph) at ambient temperatures facilitated rapid dissolution of the pre-activated cellulose in the ammonia-salt solvent ( i.e. , ammonium thiocyanate salt dissolved in liquid ammonia) at ambient pressures. For the first time in reported literature, we used time-resolved in situ neutron scattering methods to characterize the cellulose polymorphs structural modification and understand the mechanism of crystalline cellulose dissolution into a ‘molecular’ solution in real-time using ammonia-salt solvents. We also used molecular dynamics simulations to provide insight into solvent interactions that non-covalently disrupted the cellulose hydrogen-bonding network and understand how such solvents are able to rapidly and fully dissolve pre-activated cellulose III. Importantly, the regenerated amorphous cellulose recovered after pretreatment was shown to require nearly ~50-fold lesser cellulolytic enzyme usage compared to native crystalline cellulose I allomorph for achieving near-complete hydrolytic conversion into soluble sugars. Lastly, we provide proof-of-concept results to further showcase how such ammonia-salt solvents can pretreat and fractionate lignocellulosic biomass like corn stover under ambient processing conditions, while selectively co-extracting ~80–85% of total lignin, to produce a highly digestible polysaccharide-enriched feedstock for biorefinery applications. Unlike conventional ammonia-based pretreatment processes ( e.g. , Ammonia Fiber Expansion or Extractive Ammonia pretreatments), the proposed ammonia-salt process can operate at near-ambient conditions to greatly reduce the pressure/temperature severity necessary for conducting effective ammonia-based pretreatments on lignocellulose.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Purification of U from U-10Mo scrap generated during the fabrication of high performance research reactor fuel

A low enriched U-Mo alloy fuel is under development to replace highly enriched U fuels currently used in United States high performance research reactors. The alloy casting and fuel fabrication processes will generate scrap streams containing low enriched U (LEU) which must be recovered. Solvent extraction processes were designed using the Argonne Model for Universal Solvent Extraction (AMUSE) to purify solutions containing 20 and 50 g/L U. The feed for the solvent extraction processes was prepared from solutions generated from the dissolution of U-10Mo-Zr foils and U-10Mo-Zr-Al mini-plates. The U purification processes were demonstrated using two, 16-stage banks of miniature mixer-settlers. The solvent extraction experiments demonstrated that all design objectives for the U purification processes could be met. The U recovery in the product stream for each flowsheet was ≥99.9%. The flowsheet demonstrations also showed that the purity of the U Product will meet the requirements of the ASTM International C1462-21 specification for LEU metal enriched to less than 20% 235 U. In conclusion, the AMUSE modeling for both flowsheet demonstrations was validated by comparing predicted and measured concentrations of U, Mo, and Zr in the exit streams and stage samples at steady-state conditions in the mixer-settlers.

modified PUREX process↗
DOE OSTI2023

Direct Extraction of Lanthanide Oxides and Nitrates in Tributyl Phosphate

This work investigated the dissolution rate of lanthanide oxides and nitrates in a 30 vol % TBP-n-paraffin solvent (pre-equilibrated with various nitric acid concentrations) using visible (Vis) spectroscopy over time. Some dissolution mechanics were observed, such as an aqueous layer forming, considerably longer dissolution times for the heavier lanthanides (hours) vs. the lighter lanthanides (minutes), and the impacts of mixing lanthanide oxides or nitrates during dissolution. Neodymium, samarium, holmium, and erbium were selected due to their unique spectroscopic signatures and to represent the lighter (neodymium and samarium) and heavier (holmium and erbium) lanthanides. Even though europium does not have a strong absorbance in the range studied, europium was used in some instances to also represent the lighter lanthanides. Cerium oxide was used to representant dissolution of tetravalent lanthanides.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2021

CO 2 utilization in built environment via the P CO 2 swing carbonation of alkaline solid wastes with different mineralogy

Carbon mineralization to solid carbonates is one of the reaction pathways that can not only utilize captured CO 2 but also potentially store it in the long term. In this study, the dissolution and carbonation behaviors of alkaline solid wastes (i.e., waste concrete) was investigated. Concrete is one of the main contributors to a large carbon emission in the built environment. Thus, the upcycling of waste concrete via CO 2 utilization has multifaceted environmental benefits including CO 2 emission reduction, waste management and reduced mining. Unlike natural silicate minerals such as olivine and serpentine, alkaline solid wastes including waste concrete are highly reactive, and thus, their dissolution and carbonation behaviors vary significantly. Here, both conventional acid (e.g., hydrochloric acid) and less studied carbonic acid (i.e., CO 2 saturated water) solvent systems were explored to extract Ca from concrete. Non-stoichiometric dissolution behaviors between Ca and Si were confirmed under far-from-equilibrium conditions (0.1 wt% slurry density), and the re-precipitation of the extracted Si was observed at near-equilibrium conditions (5 wt% slurry density), when the Ca extraction was performed at a controlled pH of 3. These experiments, with a wide range of slurry densities, provided valuable insight into Si re-precipitation phenomena and its effect on the mass transfer limitation during concrete dissolution. Next, the use of the partial pressure of CO 2 for the pH swing carbon mineralization process was investigated for concrete, and the results were compared to those of Mg-bearing silicate minerals. In the P CO 2 swing process, the extraction of Ca was significantly limited by the precipitation of the carbonate phase (i.e., calcite), since CO 2 bubbling could not provide a low enough pH condition for concrete–water–CO 2 systems. Furthermore, this study showed that the two-step carbon mineralization via P CO 2 swing, that has been developed for Mg-bearing silicate minerals, may not be viable for highly reactive Ca-bearing silicate materials (e.g., concrete). The precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) derived from waste concrete via a pH swing process showed very promising results with a high CO 2 utilization potential as an upcycled construction material.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Solubilization of PET in binary mixtures of HFIP and DCM

The dissolution of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a critical step for a solvent-based process, yet it typically requires highly corrosive or toxic solvents. Here, we investigate the solubilization and conformational behavior of PET in binary mixtures of hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP) and dichloromethane (DCM) as a strategy to reduce HFIP usage while maintaining effective dissolution. Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements reveal that PET remains molecularly dissolved in HFIP/DCM mixtures up to 50 vol% DCM. Analysis of PET chain conformations shows a transition from Gaussian behavior at low HFIP fractions to more swollen chains at intermediate compositions, accompanied by a counter-intuitive minimum in the radius of gyration at 50% HFIP. Complementary SANS measurements of the binary solvents demonstrate that compositional heterogeneity is maximized at this same solvent composition, suggesting a direct coupling between solvent microstructure and polymer dimensions. Molecular dynamics simulations corroborate the experimental findings, revealing solvent domain formation, preferential solvation of PET by HFIP, and a “caging” effect arising from solvent heterogeneity that leads to polymer coil compaction. Together, these results provide molecular-level insight into polymer behavior in mixed solvent systems and establish HFIP/DCM mixtures as a promising, more sustainable solvent platform for the PET post-process.

Arifuzzaman, Arif [ORNL]↗
DOE OSTI2020

Corrosion of Commercial Mg–Al Alloys: AZ31B, AM60, and AZ91D

Aqueous corrosion, atmospheric corrosion, and ionic liquid dissolution studies were performed on commercial alloys AZ31B, AM60, and AZ91D and compared with previously reported results for single-phase binary Mg–Al alloys containing similar Al concentrations (αMg-2 at% Al, αMg-5 at% Al, and Mg-8 at% Al). Polarization studies in 0.6 M NaCl were used to characterize the aqueous free corrosion behavior during 20-h free immersion. Accelerated corrosion testing was performed using a rotating-disk electrode which revealed the evolution of an Al-rich mud-cracking and platelet morphology. Atmospheric droplet testing showed rapid pH increases that depended on the Al concentration in the alloy. Time-dependent contact angle measurements showed that the degree of droplet wetting increased during free corrosion by ~50° over 20 h in 0.6 M NaCl. Ionic liquid dissolution studies in 1:2 M choline chloride:urea deep eutectic solvent were performed in order to examine the current-voltage behavior of these alloys in the absence of water and hydrogen reduction. The results of these studies revealed the formation of nanowire corrosion morphologies within a honeycomb lattice structure which we attribute to selective dissolution of Mg via a two-dimensional stepflow process

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solubility and Dissolution Rate of LiCl-KCl-NaCl

This work aims to determine the potential risk of directly storing waste salt from the electrorefining process of used nuclear fuel in a geologic repository. To accomplish this, the solubility limit and dissolution rate of four representative chloride salt mixtures (solutes) in water and two brine solutions (solvents) are observed and documented.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Highly Stable and Conductive 1,3‐Dioxolane/Hydrocarbon Based Electrolyte Solvent for Advanced Lithium‐Sulfur Batteries

Abstract Developing effective electrolytes is crucial for boosting the performance of Lithium‐Sulfur (LiS) rechargeable battery. Recent improvements in electrolyte formulations have enhanced cyclability by increasing electrochemical stability at the electrode interfaces. However, achieving both high ionic conductivity (σ) and stability at these interfaces simultaneously remains a significant challenge. In this study, we utilized a strategy to suppress polysulfide dissolution by employing a mixture of 1,3‐dioxolane (DOL) and hydrocarbon solvents with lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) electrolyte salt. Compared to the conventional electrolyte solution, which is 1 M LiTFSI salt in a 50/50 vol % mixture of DOL and dimethoxy ethane (DME), the LiTFSI electrolyte with DOL/hydrocarbon solvents demonstrate better cycling stability, compatibility with the Li‐metal anode, and a high specific discharge capacity (Csp). Among the various DOL/hydrocarbon and LiTFSI electrolyte salts, the combination of DOL and n‐hexane, a linear hydrocarbon, with LiTFSI electrolyte salt, (DnH40LiTFSI) exhibits remarkable σ (6.5×10 −3 S/cm at 30 °C), compatibility with the Li‐metal anode, an initial Csp of ca. 1264 mAh/g, cycling stability (Csp and Coulombic efficiency are 811 mAh/g and 98.09 % after 120 cycles) at 0.1 C by forming a good protective layer on the Li‐metal surface and preventing polysulfide dissolution.

Ahmed, Faiz↗
DOE OSTI2024

Investigating the Impacts of Direct Dissolution Conditions on the Radiolytic Longevity of Butyramide Extractants

Removing the nitric acid (HNO3) dissolution step in used nuclear fuel (UNF) reprocessing would reduce the volume of radioactive waste streams generated, thereby, improving process efficiency. A promising strategy for this is the direct dissolution of UNF that has been pretreated by voloxidation into an organic solvent composed of specialized extractants and diluent. However, removal of the aqueous HNO3 phase from the envisioned reprocessing system has the potential to drastically change the suite of radiation-induced processes occurring, and thus, alter the longevity of proposed reagents. Furthermore, the impacts of fission product and transuranic metal ion complexation on the aforementioned radiation-induced processes is poorly understood, and yet can cause significant changes in radiolytic longevity. To bridge these knowledge gaps and support the continued development of direct dissolution strategies, we present an investigation into the impacts of direct dissolution conditions on the gamma radiation-induced degradation of N,N-di-(2-ethylhexyl) butyramide (DEHBA) and N,N-di-(2-ethylhexyl)isobutyramide (DEHiBA) ligands—candidate replacements for tributyl phosphate—in pre-equilibrated n-dodecane solvent in the presence and absence of envisioned loading amounts of uranium.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗
DOE OSTI2020

Dissolution of Fluoride Salts in Hanford Tank Waste

The Direct Feed High-Level Waste (DFHLW) strategy seeks to bypass the Hanford Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant Pretreatment Facility while retaining some processing functions to maximize waste feed loading and minimize high-level waste (HLW) waste volume. The DFHLW flowsheet needs leaching, washing, and solids concentration operations either in new or existing tanks. The effectiveness and efficiency of sludge washing has a substantial impact on DST space, mission duration, and the evaporation and low-activity waste (LAW) treatment operations required by these large wash-water additions. One target species requiring washing is fluoride. The HLW glass composition limits for fluorine drive operations to dissolve fluoride-bearing salts into the LAW fraction and thereby maximize waste loading in HLW glass. The fluoride in many high-level wastes at Hanford is predominantly in the form of fluoride-salt precipitates: villiaumite (NaF), kogarkoite (Na 3 FSO 4 ), and natrophosphate (Na 7 F(PO 4 ) 2 ·19H 2 O). Fluoride produces melter off-gas that creates corrosion risk in the off-gas system piping, while the sulfate and phosphate in the fluoride double salts kogarkoite and natrophosphate can be detrimental to glass waste loading. Fluoride salts are sparingly soluble, with solubilities ranging from approximately 40 to 130 kg per kL of pure water, and the dissolution kinetics of the three fluoride salts are not well known. Unexpected delays in a tank dissolution process could be encountered as a result of the lack of information about dissolution rates. In addition, if the double salts show transient non-stoichiometric dissolution of fluoride versus phosphate or sulfate, unexpectedly high concentrations of one of these other constituents could be produced. Washington River Protection Solutions authorized Pacific Northwest National Laboratory to collect the available data for fluoride salt dissolution rate, provide a scoping estimate of dissolution time if possible, and identify gaps in the understanding and predictive capability for estimating dissolution time. Open literature and Hanford reports were reviewed to document, understand, and (where possible) evaluate limitations on fluoride salt equilibria and dissolution kinetics, including both mass transport and surface reaction rate. Scoping estimates of dissolution time were made for mass-transfer-controlled dissolution of spherical particles of fluoride salts suspended in liquid. This is not the only potential governing mechanism; dissolution could be substantially slower if the surface reaction rate (the rate of release of ions from the surface) is the controlling mechanism. When the minimum amount of water for complete dissolution is used and the slip velocity between the liquid and suspended particles is less than or equal to the terminal settling velocity, the estimated mass-transfer rates allow 0.1 mm particles of fluoride salt to dissolve in minutes at 25 °C in water containing no other dissolved salts. Much larger solids, such as the 6-mm chunks that have been seen in heels, could take a few hours to more than a week to dissolve. The actual dissolution times will depend strongly on the actual slip velocity, the extent of particle suspension, constraint by surface reaction rates, the ratio of solvent to solid, and the presence of common ions that shift the solubility equilibria to restrict dissolution of fluoride salts.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2022

Metal dissolution from first principles: Potential-dependent kinetics and charge transfer

Metal dissolution and its inverse process are integral to both corrosion and electrodeposition; however, many mechanistic details regarding the dissolution process are challenging to decipher. These include how ion dissolution kinetics and charge transfer are influenced by the competition between metal and solvent interactions under an electrode potential. Here, in this work, we introduce a computational framework based on density functional theory with grand-canonical treatment of electrons to directly predict the potential energy landscape for metal dissolution at a constant potential. Using aluminum as an example, we demonstrate that dissolution kinetics is governed by competing kinetics between two physical processes associated with metal–metal bond breaking and ion-migration within the electrical double layer, respectively. We identify a kinetic transition between regimes dominated by each of these processes and show that this transition depends on the operating electrode potential, among other key factors. It is further found that kinetics and thermodynamics of these processes can be described with a simple, one-parameter Marcus-theory-type model. Beyond offering new understanding of charge transfer during dissolution, our simulation protocol provides a recipe for directly predicting other important quantities in electrochemical reactions from first principles that are difficult to measure, such as the symmetry factor.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Synthesis, antibiotic structure–activity relationships, and cellulose dissolution studies of new room-temperature ionic liquids derived from lignin

Ionic liquids (ILs) are promising pretreatment solvents for lignocellulosic biomass, but are largely prepared from petroleum precursors. Benzaldehydes from depolymerized lignin, such as vanillin, syringaldehyde, and 4-methoxy benzaldehyde, represent renewable feedstocks for the synthesis of ionic liquids. We herein report syntheses of novel lignin-derived ionic liquids, with extended N -alkyl chains, and examine their melting points, cellulose dissolution capacities, and toxicity profiles against Daphnia magna and E. coli strain 1A1. The latter organism has been engineered to produce isoprenol, a drop-in biofuel and precursor for commodity chemicals. The new N,N -diethyl and N,N -dipropyl methyl benzylammonium ILs were liquids at room temperature, showing 75–100 °C decreased melting points as compared to their N,N,N -trimethyl benzylammonium analog. Extension of N -alkyl chains also increased antibacterial activity threefold, while ionic liquids prepared from vanillin showed 2- to 4-fold lower toxicity as compared to those prepared from syringaldehyde and 4-methoxybenzaldehyde. The trend of antibacterial activity for anions of lignin-derived ILs was found to be methanesulfonate < acetate < hydroxide. Microcrystalline cellulose dissolution, from 2 to 4 wt% after 20 min at 100 °C, was observed in all new ILs using light microscopy and IR spectroscopy. Ionic liquids prepared from H-, S- and G-lignin oxidation products provided differential cytotoxic activity against E. coli and D. magna , suggesting these compounds could be tailored for application specificity within a biorefinery.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Ion-Specific Precipitation of Extractants Enables Rare-Earth Separation and Wastewater Remediation from Solvent Extraction of Critical Elements

The increasing demand for rare-earth elements (REEs) necessitates sustainable recovery strategies, particularly from secondary sources, such as electronic waste. Solvent extraction is the primary industrial method for REE separation; however, the unintentional dissolution of extractants into wastewater poses serious environmental risks, leading to organic contamination and process inefficiencies. Existing wastewater treatment methods struggle to remove these persistent pollutants, underscoring the need for innovative recovery approaches. Herein, we present a ligand-mediated precipitation strategy that simultaneously recovers REEs and removes dissolved extractants from solvent extraction wastewater. We show that residual extractants in the aqueous phase can selectively bind REEs, inducing their precipitation while leaving transition metals in solution. By integrating FTIR spectroscopy, EDS, XPS, EXAFS, and SAXS, we elucidate the mechanism of ion-specific precipitation and the local coordination environment of metal ions in the precipitate. Importantly, we demonstrate that the precipitated extractants can be efficiently recovered and reused, providing a closed-loop solution that enhances sustainability. Applying this method to leachates from samarium–cobalt (Sm–Co) and neodymium–iron–boron (NdFeB) mixed magnets, we achieve highly selective REE precipitation under mild conditions, demonstrating a scalable and cost-effective pathway for REE recovery, wastewater purification, and extractant recycling. In conclusion, by integrating element-specific ligand-mediated precipitation with extractant reuse, this work offers a transformative approach to REE separation that reduces the environmental impact while improving resource efficiency.

E-waste↗
DOE OSTI2026

In-Situ Ligand-Induced Chirality Transfer in Emissive CdSe Nanoplatelets

Terminating semiconductor nanocrystals with chiral organic ligands can induce chiroptical properties that combine the chiral character of the ligands with the strong and tunable optical properties of the nanocrystal. However, the synthesis of such chiral-modified nanocrystals is currently limited by solvent incompatibility between polar chiral ligands and nonpolar traditional ligands, as well as by ligand dissolution behavior that ultimately compromises nanocrystal quality and the degree to which chiroptical properties can be manipulated. In this work, we demonstrate a single-step synthesis of chiral cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanoplatelets (NPLs) that eliminates the need for postsynthetic ligand exchange in aqueous solvents, resulting in highly emissive chiral CdSe NPLs. By directly incorporating chiral aminodecanoic acid ligands during synthesis, we achieve in situ ligand binding and chirality transfer to CdSe NPLs. This approach produces CdSe NPLs with high photoluminescence quantum efficiencies of 50% and circular dichroism dissymmetry factors (gCD) on the order of 10 –4 .

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗