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NASA NTRS1981

Optimal air-breathing launch vehicle design

A generalized two-point boundary problem methodology, similar to techniques used in deterministic optimal control studies, is applied to the design and flight analysis of a two-stage air-breathing launch vehicle. Simultaneous consideration is given to configuration and trajectory by treating geometry, dynamic discontinuities, and time-dependent flight variables all as controls to be optimized with respect to a single mathematical performance measure. While minimizing fuel consumption, inequality constraints are applied to dynamic pressure and specific force. The optimal system fuel consumption and staging Mach number are found to vary little with changes in the inequality constraints due to substantial geometry and trajectory adjustments. Staging, from an air-breathing first stage to a rocket-powered second stage, consistently occurs near Mach 3.5. The dynamic pressure bound has its most pronounced effects on vehicle geometry, particularly the air-breathing propulsion inlet area, and on the first-stage altitude profile. The specific force has its greatest influence on the second-stage thrust history.

Hattis, P. D.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Environmental Conditions and Threatened and Endangered Species Populations near the Titain, Atlas, and Delta Launch Complexes, Cape Canaveral Air Station

Launches of Delta, Atlas, and Titan rockets from Cape Canaveral Air Station (CCAS) have potential environmental effects. These could occur from direct impacts of launches or indirectly from habitat alterations. This report summarizes a three-year study (1995-1998) characterizing the environment, with particular attention to threatened and endangered species, near Delta, Atlas, and Titan launch facilities. Cape Canaveral has been modified by Air Force development and by 50 years of fire suppression. The dominant vegetation type around the Delta and Atlas launch complexes is coastal oak hammock forest. Oak scrub is the predominant upland vegetation type near the Titan launch complexes. Compositionally, these are coastal scrub communities that has been unburned for greater than 40 years and have developed into closed canopy, low-stature forests. Herbaceous vegetation around active and inactive facilities, coastal strand and dune vegetation near the Atlantic Ocean, and exotic vegetation in disturbed areas are common. Marsh and estuarine vegetation is most common west of the Titan complexes. Launch effects to vegetation include scorch, acid, and particulate deposition. Discernable, cumulative effects are limited to small areas near the launch complexes. Water quality samples were collected at the Titan, Atlas, and Delta launch complexes in September 1995 (wet season) and January 1996 (dry season). Samples were analyzed for heavy metals, chloride, total organic carbon, calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, total alkalinity, pH, and conductivity. Differences between fresh, brackish, and saline surface waters were evident. The natural buffering capacity of the environment surrounding the CCAS launch complexes is adequate for neutralizing acid deposition in rainfall and launch deposition. Populations of the Florida Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens), a Federally- listed, threatened species, reside near the launch complexes. Thirty-seven to forty-one scrub-jay territories were located at Titan, Atlas, and Delta launch complexes between 1995 and 1997. No direct impacts to scrub-jays were observed as a result of normal launches. The explosion of the Delta rocket in January 1997 caused direct impacts to the habitat of several scrub-jays families, from fire and debris; however, no scrub-jay mortality was observed. Mortality exceeded reproductive output at all areas over the course of the study. Populations of the southeastern beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris) populations, a Federally listed, threatened species, reside near all the launch complexes. Hurricane Erin and several other tropical storms impacted several areas at the inception of the study in 1995 causing coastal habitat alterations as a result of salt-water intrusion. Both the habitat and the beach mice populations recovered during the course of the study. No direct impacts to southeastern beach mice were observed as a result of normal launch operations. Direct impacts were observed to the habitat as a result of the explosion of the Delta rocket in January 1997. This alteration of the habitant resulted in a shift in use with the mice moving on to the newly burned part of the site. Waterbirds use wetlands and aquatic systems near the launch complexes. Species include the Federally-listed, endangered Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) and several state-listed species of special concern including the Snowy Egret (Egretta thula thula), Reddish Egret (Egretta rufescens rufescens), White Ibis (Eudocimus albus), Roseate Spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja), Tricolored Heron (Egretta tricolor ruficolis), and Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea). No impacts to these populations resulting from any launch operations were observed. Gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) also occur around the launch complexes. Most of those observed appeared to be in good condition; however, upper respiratory tract disease is known to occur in the population. Cape Canaveral Air Station, including areas near active launch complexes, remains important habitat for a variety of native plants and animals including threatened and endangered species. Direct negative effects of current launch systems appear limited. Additional monitoring of these populations and habitats is required to determine if subtle, long-term changes are occurring, to determine if new launch systems and facilities cause other effects, and to determine the effects of habitat restoration and management.

Oddy, Donna M.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Environmental Conditions and Threatened and Endangered Species Populations near the Titan, Atlas, and Delta Launch Complexes, Cape Canaveral Air Station

Launches of Delta, Atlas, and Titan rockets from Cape Canaveral Air Station (CCAS) have potential environmental effects. These could occur from direct impacts of launches or indirectly from habitat alterations. This report summarizes a three-year study (1 995-1 998) characterizing the environment, with particular attention to threatened and endangered species, near Delta, Atlas, and Titan launch facilities. Cape Canaveral has been modified by Air Force development and by 50 years of fire suppression. The dominant vegetation type around the Delta and Atlas launch complexes is coastal oak hammock forest. Oak scrub is the predominant upland vegetation type near the Titan launch complexes. Compositionally, these are coastal scrub communities that has been unburned for > 40 years and have developed into closed canopy, low-stature forests. Herbaceous vegetation around active and inactive facilities, coastal strand and dune vegetation near the Atlantic Ocean, and exotic vegetation in disturbed areas are common. Marsh and estuarine vegetation is most common west of the Titan complexes. Launch effects to vegetation include scorch, acid, and particulate deposition. Discernable, cumulative effects are limited to small areas near the launch complexes. Water quality samples were collected at the Titan, Atlas, and Delta launch complexes in September 1995 (wet season) and January 1996 (dry season). Samples were analyzed for heavy metals, chloride, total organic carbon, calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, total alkalinity, pH, and conductivity. Differences between fresh, brackish, and saline surface waters were evident. The natural buffering capacity of the environment surrounding the CCAS launch complexes is adequate for neutralizing acid deposition in rainfall and launch deposition. Populations of the Florida Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens), a Federally-listed, threatened species, reside near the launch complexes. Thirty-seven to forty-one scrub-jay territories were located at Titan, Atlas, and Delta launch complexes between 1995 and 1997. No direct impacts to scrub-jays were observed as a result of normal launches. The explosion of the Delta rocket in January 1997 caused direct impacts to the habitat of several scrub-jays families, from fire and debris; however, no scrub-jay mortality was observed. Mortality exceeded reproductive output at all areas over the course of the study. Populations of the southeastern beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris) populations, a Federally listed, threatened species, reside near all the launch complexes. Hurricane Erin and several other tropical storms impacted several areas at the inception of the study in 1995 causing coastal habitat alterations as a result of salt-water intrusion. Both the habitat and the beach mice populations recovered during the course of the study. No direct impacts to southeastern beach mice were observed as a result of normal launch operations. Direct impacts were observed to the habitat as a result of the explosion of the Delta rocket in January 1997. This alteration of the habitat resulted in a shift in use with the mice moving on to the newly burned part of the site. Waterbirds use wetlands and aquatic systems near the launch complexes. Species include the Federally-listed, endangered Wood Stork (Mycferia americana) and several state-listed species of special concern including the Snowy Egret (Egretfa thula fhula), Reddish Egret (Egreffa rufescens rufescens), White Ibis (Eudocimus albus), Roseate Spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja), Tricolored Heron (Egreffa tricolor ruficolis), and Little Blue Heron (Egreffa caerulea). No impacts to these populations resulting from any launch operations were observed. Gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) also occur around the launch complexes. Most of those observed appeared to be in good condition; however, upper respiratory tract disease is known to occur in the population. Cape Canaveral Air Station, including areas near active launch colexes, remains important habitat for a variety of native plants and animals including threatened and endangered species. Direct negative effects of current launch systems appear limited. Additional monitoring of these populations and habitats is required to determine if subtle, long-term changes are occurring, to determine if new launch systems and facilities cause other effects, and to determine the effects of habitat restoration and management.

Oddy, Donna M.↗

NASA NTRS1974

A shuttle development flight test vehicle study

A study is presented that identifies the potential performance capability of the production shuttle orbiter for powered flight tests using several propulsion systems following vertical takeoff and using J-2 rocket engines following air launch. Of the approaches considered, the air-launched orbiter equipped with J-2 rocket engines appeared to have the highest potential for early shuttle development flights. With this approach, mach 4 appeared attainable using 45.5K kg (100K lb) of internal propellant. Several issues were identified that require resolution to prove feasibility.

Rainey, R. W.↗

NASA NTRS1979

Launch vehicle effluent measurements during the August 20, 1977, Titan 3 launch at Air Force Eastern Test Range

Airborne effluent measurements within the launch cloud and visible and infrared measurements of cloud physical behavior are discussed. Airborne effluent measurements include concentrations of HCl, Cl2, NO, NOX, and particulates as a function of time during each sampling pass through the exhaust cloud. The particle size distribution was measured for each pass through the cloud. Mass concentration as a function of particle diameter was measured over the size range of 0.05- to 25 micron diameter, and particle number density was measured as a function of diameter over a size range of 0.5 to 7.5 micron. Effluent concentrations in the cloud ranged from about 30 ppm several minutes after launch to about 1 to 2 ppm at 100 minutes. Maximum Cl2 concentrations were about 40 to 55 ppb and by 20 minutes were less than 1.0 ppb. A tabulated listing of the airborne data is given in the appendix. Usable cloud imaging data were limited to the first 16 minutes after launch.

Woods, D. C.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Performance Validation Approach for the GTX Air-Breathing Launch Vehicle

The primary objective of the GTX effort is to determine whether or not air-breathing propulsion can enable a launch vehicle to achieve orbit in a single stage. Structural weight, vehicle aerodynamics, and propulsion performance must be accurately known over the entire flight trajectory in order to make a credible assessment. Structural, aerodynamic, and propulsion parameters are strongly interdependent, which necessitates a system approach to design, evaluation, and optimization of a single-stage-to-orbit concept. The GTX reference vehicle serves this purpose, by allowing design, development, and validation of components and subsystems in a system context. The reference vehicle configuration (including propulsion) was carefully chosen so as to provide high potential for structural and volumetric efficiency, and to allow the high specific impulse of air-breathing propulsion cycles to be exploited. Minor evolution of the configuration has occurred as analytical and experimental results have become available. With this development process comes increasing validation of the weight and performance levels used in system performance determination. This paper presents an overview of the GTX reference vehicle and the approach to its performance validation. Subscale test rigs and numerical studies used to develop and validate component performance levels and unit structural weights are outlined. The sensitivity of the equivalent, effective specific impulse to key propulsion component efficiencies is presented. The role of flight demonstration in development and validation is discussed.

Trefny, Charles J.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Performance Validation Approach for the GTX Air-Breathing Launch Vehicle

Trefny, Charles J.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Monitoring Direct Effects of Delta, Atlas, and Titan Launches from Cape Canaveral Air Station

Launches of Delta, Atlas, and Titan rockets from Cape Canaveral Air Station (CCAS) have potential environmental effects that could arise from direct impacts of the launch exhaust (e.g., blast, heat), deposition of exhaust products of the solid rocket motors (hydrogen chloride, aluminum oxide), or other effects such as noise. Here we: 1) review previous reports, environmental assessments, and environmental impact statements for Delta, Atlas, and Titan vehicles and pad areas to clarity the magnitude of potential impacts; 2) summarize observed effects of 15 Delta, 22 Atlas, and 8 Titan launches; and 3) develop a spatial database of the distribution of effects from individual launches and cumulative effects of launches. The review of previous studies indicated that impacts from these launches can occur from the launch exhaust heat, deposition of exhaust products from the solid rocket motors, and noise. The principal effluents from solid rocket motors are hydrogen chloride (HCl), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), water (H2O), hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2). The exhaust plume interacts with the launch complex structure and water deluge system to generate a launch cloud. Fall out or rain out of material from this cloud can produce localized effects from acid or particulate deposition. Delta, Atlas, and Titan launch vehicles differ in the number and size of solid rocket boosters and in the amount of deluge water used. All are smaller and use less water than the Space Shuttle. Acid deposition can cause damage to plants and animals exposed to it, acidify surface water and soil, and cause long-term changes to community composition and structure from repeated exposure. The magnitude of these effects depends on the intensity and frequency of acid deposition.

Schmalzer, Paul A.↗

NASA NTRS1961

Launch Characteristics of the X-15 Research Airplane as Determined in Flight

The first 16 air launches of the X-15 airplane demonstrated the feasibility of air launch from an asymmetric position under the wing of the B-52 carrier airplane. With all dampers operating, launch transients were minimized and no stability problems were encountered. But, when the roll damper failed to function, the X-15 experienced relatively large roll rates in the presence of the carrier airplane, creating the possibility of the X-15 upper vertical tail hitting the cutout in the B-52 wing. Specific flight data demonstrated that left-aileron settings of from 6 deg to 8 deg at launch minimized the right-roll transient. The altitude loss of 3,000 to 9,000 feet before climbout could be effected was a function of launch altitude and recovery angle of attack. The average time for the X-15 to separate 10 feet from the B-52 carrier airplane was about 0.8 second. Flight-measured separation rates and launch transients agree well with predicted values where the initial conditions and control motions are similar.

Matranga, Gene J.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Summary of airborne chlorine and hydrogen chloride gas measurements for August 20 and September 5, 1977 Voyager launches at Air Force Eastern Test Range, Florida

Airborne chlorine and hydrogen chloride measurements were made in the tropospheric ground cloud following the Voyager launches of August 20 and September 5, 1977. The maximum observed hydrogen chloride concentration for both launches was about 25 to 30 parts per million (ppm) occurring typically 2 to 6 minutes after launch. By completion of the sampling mission (1-1/2 hours for August, 4-1/2 hours for September), the maximum in-cloud concentration decayed to about 1 to 2 ppm. Maximum observed chlorine concentrations were about 40 to 55 parts per billion (ppb) about 2 to 8 minutes after launch; by about 15 minutes after launch, chlorine concentrations were less than 10 ppb (detection limit). In-cloud chlorine concentrations were well below 1 percent of hydrogen chloride concentrations. The appendix of the report discusses the chlorine instrument and the laboratory evaluation of the detector.

Gregory, G. L.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Effluent monitoring of the December 10, 1974, Titan 3-E launch at Air Force Eastern Test Range, Florida

Surface and airborne field measurements of the cloud behavior and effluent dispersion from a solid rocket motor launch vehicle are presented. The measurements were obtained as part of a continuing launch vehicle effluent monitoring program to obtain experimental field measurements in order to evaluate a model used to predict launch vehicle environmental impact. Results show that the model tends to overpredict effluent levels.

Wornom, D. E.↗

NASA NTRS1979

Launch vehicle effluent measurements during the September 5, 1977, Titan 3 launch at Air Force eastern test range

Airborne effluent measurements and cloud physical behavior data are presented. The monitoring program included airborne effluent measurements in situ in the launch cloud, visible and infrared photography of cloud growth and physical behavior, and limited surface collection of rain samples. Effluent measurements included concentrations of HCl, Cl2, NO, nitric oxide, and particles as a function of time in the exhaust cloud. In situ particle mass concentration and number density were measured as a function of time and size in the range of 0.05 micron m to 30 micron m diameter. Measurement results were similar to those of previous launch monitorings. Maximum HCl and nitric oxide concentrations of Cl2 were maximum about 2 minutes after launch and by 10 to 15 minutes had decayed to less than 10 ppb (detection limit). Particle measurements showed most of the particles present to be below about 3-micron m diameter. Postlaunch analyses of collected particle samples showed significant amounts of Al (some cases Cl) from about 3-micron m to 0.04-micron m diameter.

Wornom, D. E.↗

NASA NTRS2005

REUSABLE PROPULSION ARCHITECTURE FOR SUSTAINABLE LOW-COST ACCESS TO SPACE

Two transportation architecture changes are presented at either end of a conventional two-stage rocket flight: 1) Air launch using a large, conventional, pod hauler design (i.e., Crossbow)ans 2) Momentum exchange tether (i.e., an in-space asset like MXER). Air launch has ana analytically justified cost reduction of approx. 10%, but its intangible benefits suggest real-world operations cost reductions much higher: 1) Inherent launch safety; 2) Mission Risk Reduction; 3) Favorable payload/rocket limitations; and 4) Leveraging the aircraft for other uses (military transport, commercial cargo, public outreach activities, etc.)

Bonometti, Joseph↗

NASA NTRS2003

Air-Breathing Launch Vehicle Technology Being Developed

Of the technical factors that would contribute to lowering the cost of space access, reusability has high potential. The primary objective of the GTX program is to determine whether or not air-breathing propulsion can enable reusable single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) operations. The approach is based on maturation of a reference vehicle design with focus on the integration and flight-weight construction of its air-breathing rocket-based combined-cycle (RBCC) propulsion system.

Trefny, Charles J.↗

NASA NTRS2007

Phoenix Missile Hypersonic Testbed (PMHT): Project Concept Overview

An over view of research into a low cost hypersonic research flight test capability to increase the amount of hypersonic flight data to help bridge the large developmental gap between ground testing/analysis and major flight demonstrator Xplanes is provided. The major objectives included: develop an air launched missile booster research testbed; accurately deliver research payloads through programmable guidance to hypersonic test conditions; low cost; a high flight rate minimum of two flights per year and utilize surplus air launched missiles and NASA aircraft.

Jones, Thomas P.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Use of Taguchi design of experiments to optimize and increase robustness of preliminary designs

The research performed this summer includes the completion of work begun last summer in support of the Air Launched Personnel Launch System parametric study, providing support on the development of the test matrices for the plume experiments in the Plume Model Investigation Team Project, and aiding in the conceptual design of a lunar habitat. After the conclusion of last years Summer Program, the Systems Definition Branch continued with the Air Launched Personnel Launch System (ALPLS) study by running three experiments defined by L27 Orthogonal Arrays. Although the data was evaluated during the academic year, the analysis of variance and the final project review were completed this summer. The Plume Model Investigation Team (PLUMMIT) was formed by the Engineering Directorate to develop a consensus position on plume impingement loads and to validate plume flowfield models. In order to obtain a large number of individual correlated data sets for model validation, a series of plume experiments was planned. A preliminary 'full factorial' test matrix indicated that 73,024 jet firings would be necessary to obtain all of the information requested. As this was approximately 100 times more firings than the scheduled use of Vacuum Chamber A would permit, considerable effort was needed to reduce the test matrix and optimize it with respect to the specific objectives of the program. Part of the First Lunar Outpost Project deals with Lunar Habitat. Requirements for the habitat include radiation protection, a safe haven for occasional solar flare storms, an airlock module as well as consumables to support 34 extra vehicular activities during a 45 day mission. The objective for the proposed work was to collaborate with the Habitat Team on the development and reusability of the Logistics Modules.

Carrasco, Hector R.↗

NASA NTRS1977

Experimental measurements of the ground cloud effluents and cloud growth for the May 20, 1975, Titan 3C launch at Air Force Eastern Test Range, Florida

The experiment included surface level and airborne in situ cloud measurements of the exhaust effluents from the Titan IIIC solid rocket boosters. Simultaneous visible spectrum photographic pictures of the ground cloud as well as infrared imaging of the cloud were obtained to study the cloud rise, growth, and direction of travel within the earth's surface mixing layer. The NASA multilayer diffusion model predictions of cloud growth, direction of travel, and expected surface level effluent concentrations were made prior to launch and after launch using measured meteorological conditions. Prelaunch predictions were used to position the effluent monitoring instruments, and the postlaunch predictions were compared with the measured data. Measurement results showed that surface level effluent values were low, often below the detection limits of the instrumentation. The maximum surface level hydrogen chloride concentration measured 50 parts per billion at about 8 km from the launch pad. The maximum observed in-cloud (airborne measurement) hydrogen chloride concentration was 7 per million.

Gregory, G. L.↗

NASA NTRS1954

Summary of Free-flight Performance of a Series of Ram-jet Engines at Mach Numbers from 0.80 to 2.20

Data obtained from the NACA air-launched ram-jet program are summarized with emphasis placed upon the transonic propulsive thrust potential of the engines. Data are presented for boosted and non-boosted engine configurations which incorporate a single-oblique-shock or double-oblique-shock diffuser designed for critical inlet operation at flight Mach numbers of 1.8 and 2.4, respectively. The engines are evaluated in terms of flight Mach number, mass-flow ratio, diffuser pressure recovery, combustion-chamber heat release, propulsive thrust, external drag, and specific impulse. From specific impulse considerations, it appears that for some air-launched missile applications the self-accelerating supersonic ram jet may have a lower gross weight than a rocket-boosted ram jet.

RESEARCH EQUIPMENT, FREE-FLIGHT↗