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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Oxidation behaviors of matrix-grade graphite during water vapor ingress accidents for high temperature gas-cooled reactors

Water ingress into cores of high temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs) can cause serious safety problems in graphitic components, especially for matrix graphite, which is more vulnerable than nuclear graphite. Here in this study, oxidation behaviors of a matrix-grade graphite, ARB-B1, were investigated under simulated water ingress accidental conditions. The oxidation tests were conducted in water vapor/helium mixed atmospheres at elevated temperatures up to 1200 °C. Oxidation rates and activation energy were evaluated by mass loss measurements. The activation energy was 121.5 kJ/mol in the considered temperature range, indicating only one oxidation regime-in-pore diffusion assisted by cracks. The cracks originated from the fabrication process, acting as penetration paths for the oxidant, played an important role in the oxidation behaviors. Ungraphitized binder oxidation occurred at all temperatures, while apparent oxidation of filler particles started from 1100 °C. Moreover, oxidation effects on compressive properties and hardness of the matrix graphite were discussed in terms of oxidized microstructures. This first detailed study on matrix graphite oxidation in water vapor provides important kinetics knowledge and microstructural and mechanical data for accidental scenarios of HTGRs as well as for development of new matrix graphite materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Examining the effects of soil entrainment during nuclear cloud rise on fallout predictions using a multiscale atmospheric modeling framework

Current operational models for nuclear cloud rise over land were developed and validated using observations from shallow-buried or surface detonations, where lofted soil quickly mixed with fission products from the detonation. These models poorly predict fallout from elevated detonations near the fallout-free height of burst (FFHOB), where interactions with the ground are limited and the mixing of fission products and lofted soil is incomplete. Fallout-free is a misnomer at this HOB, as fallout was observed in these cases, but was below the levels of concern, especially off-grounds of the nuclear test site. To correctly characterize and model fallout from detonations near the FFHOB, models must be developed which can capture the stratified nature of the particle and activity-size distributions within the cloud. Previously, it was shown that the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model can accurately simulate nuclear cloud rise for airbursts with little to no ground interactions (Arthur et al., 2021). That work is expanded here by (1) using a radiation-hydrodynamics code to improve the fireball initialization in WRF, (2) further developing an aerosol package from WRF-Chem to simulate lofted soil, and (3) combining the WRF cloud rise simulations with the operational models used at the National Atmospheric Release Advisory Center (NARAC) for fallout modeling. Using this combination of codes, the Upshot-Knothole Grable detonation, which was just below the FFHOB, is simulated from seconds after detonation through cloud rise and fallout, and results are compared to historical test data. Here, the results show improved prediction of dose rate and highlight the need to correctly characterize the entrainment of material into the cloud and the subsequent mixing of fission products with entrained material.

45 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY, WEAPONRY, AND NATIONAL DEF↗
DOE OSTI2026

Particulate Effluent Characterization (Final Report)

Understanding particulate emissions from nuclear facilities could help differentiate between normal nuclear operations and potential nuclear accidents or nuclear weapons tests. Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is unique in that there are several types of nuclear facilities on site: an operating production reactor, radiochemical separation facilities, and a spallation neutron source. This project deployed a high-volume particulate air filter sampler to collect airborne particulate effluent from the nuclear facilities on site at ORNL. Collections occurred regularly from November 1, 2024, through June 30, 2025, and were analyzed via gamma spectroscopy in the laboratory. The radioisotope iodine-123 ( 123 I) was detected in several samples throughout the collection period. Detailed atmospheric transport modeling was performed on all detections for source attribution, and the most likely source of the 123 I was determined to be the Spallation Neutron Source. The project demonstrated the viability of ORNL as a test bed for effluent monitoring studies.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

AGR Irradiated Specimen Air/Moisture Heating Test Plan

The Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) program has a need to perform high-temperature oxidation testing of tristructural isotropic (TRISO)-coated particle fuel and reactor core materials to evaluate their performance under conditions relevant to air- and moisture-ingress events in high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs). The objectives of these tests are to assess the impact of oxidizing environments on fission product release from exposed fuel kernels, compact matrix, and nuclear grade graphite, and to determine the impact of oxidizing environments on TRISO coating integrity. The program is currently developing a capability for testing irradiated fuel, matrix, and graphite specimens inside a hot cell. The Air/Moisture Ingress Experiment (AMIX) system will be capable of temperatures up to 1650°C in atmospheres containing oxygen or moisture with varying concentrations. The system will be capable of collecting fission gases as well as condensable fission products, in order to quantify total released inventory from the heated specimens. A basis for establishing experimental test matrices, and the test matrices themselves, are presented in this document. This includes considerations on specific objectives for the tests, types of oxidizing environments that should be tested, and the expected availability of irradiated specimens from the various AGR program irradiation experiments. This document only briefly discusses post-test analysis of the heated specimens, and it is recognized that in many cases the post-test analysis may be extensive. It is expected that this will be a “living” document, subject to revision as data are collected and scoping calculations are performed.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Fabrication and Testing of Micro Flux Monitors in the High Flux Isotope Reactor

Neutron dosimetry is a critical technique to measure the neutron flux, fluence, and energy spectrum of nuclear reactors and can be used to indicate fuel reloading, high-power operations, or changes in cycle length. This work presents results of a novel device named the micro flux monitor, which is a miniaturized neutron dosimeter made from small quantities (100s of nanograms) of Ti, Al, Ni, and Au metals deposited on Si and high-purity fused silica substrates using standard semiconductor fabrication techniques. Approximately 1,250 of these devices were produced, and 40 were irradiated in the pneumatic tube facility of the Neutron Activation Analysis Laboratory at the High Flux Isotope Reactor. Testing demonstrated that dosimeter metals can be deposited predictably and repeatedly in multiple geometries, including as quick response (QR) codes. Neutron flux measurements with these devices were within 3% of measurements made using standard flux monitors, demonstrating the efficacy of these devices. Devices were also tested at 500°C under a N2 atmosphere and showed minimal degradation, suggesting they could be deployed for neutron dosimetry measurements in high-temperature advanced reactors.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2025

2025 Intern Poster

The Hot Fuel Examination Facility (HFEF) at the Materials and Fuels Complex (MFC) houses the largest U.S. inert atmosphere hot cell for nuclear material research. Key features include the precision gamma scanning (PGS), Fuel Accident Condition Simulator (FACS), Neutron Radiography Reactor (NRAD), and the focus of this project, the Metallograph Loading Cell (MET Cell). The MET Cell performs tests on spent nuclear fuel, such as microhardness testing, microscopy, and neutron radiography. However, the MET Cell’s existing pressure and lighting control systems are outdated and inefficient, with inadequate documentation for system changes over time. This project aims to design a new automated control system for the MET Cell, ensuring longevity (minimum ten years), ease of troubleshooting/repair, and integration into the building monitoring system. The design process addressed challenges such as space restrictions, varied voltages within enclosures, sourcing new components, and security limitations. Compliance with NFPA 70, UL508A, MFC Physical Security, and INL Engineering standards was essential. The project involves repurposing an existing PLC to manage lighting and pressure control using digital and analog signals, simplifying wiring, and ensuring thorough documentation for future reference.

42 - ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2021

Development of a Nitrogen and Magnesium Oxide based Class A, B & D Suffocating Fire System (SFSS) for Gloveboxes

Testing related to the development and performance of a “Proof of Concept” Nitrogen/Magnesium Oxide Suffocating Fire System (SFSS) was conducted at Fire and Pump Service Group (FPSG) located in Rancho Dominguez, California. The SFSS Engineering Team (SFSSET), consisting of FPSG and Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) personnel researched, developed a prototype, and conducted testing to determine effective means to deliver magnesium oxide (MgO) sand into a glovebox (GB) in a class D fire event. The prototypes development also established the effective coverage area of a magnesium oxide suppression system as well as demonstrated that the GB inert atmosphere could be maintained during and after the release of the MgO sand to control Class A, B and D fires. Previous testing conducted on nitrogen based SFSS provided evidence that the nitrogen based SFSS controlled Class A and B fires (Ralph Clayton, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Brandon Troc and Frank Broidy, Fire and Pump Service Group 2020).Final testing was conducted within a mock GB capable of simulating an inert glovebox atmosphere. Testing demonstrated that the inert atmosphere can be maintained during and after discharge of the MgO sand over a coverage area.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
DOE OSTI2025

Analysis of Radiological Release From Fueled Irradiation Experiments During Manual Handling (Slides)

Irradiation experiments are manually handled at the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) by qualified operators using long handled tools. Standard handling evolutions include insertion and removal from the reactor vessel, transfer to/from a storage location or cask in the ATR canal, and handling/reconfigurations at a canal working tray. Such routine handling has the potential to result in mechanical damage to the experiment boundary which is credited to retain fission products. Since damage can occur due to operator error, this is an anticipated occurrence. This work determines the radiological consequences to receptors inside the ATR facility, as well as public receptors. Given the wide variety of fuel types tested at the ATR, a generic approach to the analysis is taken. The radiological inventory is determined to bound a variety of fuel types (e.g., ceramic and molten fuel matrices) and fission powers on the U-235 enrichment spectrum. The source term analysis considers different release fractions to bound different fuel types and burnups. The postulated handling events occur underwater; thus, retention of the released isotopic content is considered within the canal water column. Retention of radionuclides in the water column is determined using a modified approach of United States (US) Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Regulatory Guide (RG) 1.183. Radiological dose to the facility receptor is determined using a compartment release model. Dose to the public receptor is determined using atmospheric dispersion models using site specific atmospheric conditions with the use of the Radiological Safety Analysis Computer (RSAC) program version 7.2.

21 - SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLAN↗
DOE OSTI2022

A stilbene–strontium iodide based radioxenon detection system for monitoring nuclear explosions

Atmospheric measurement of noble gases has been extensively used for monitoring clandestine nuclear weapon explosions for many years. The ratios of four xenon isotopes of interest ( 131 mXe, 133 mXe, 133 Xe, and 135 Xe) help in discriminating regular reactor operations from nuclear tests. A new coincidence-based detection system using stilbene and strontium iodide [SrI 2 (Eu)] for electron and photon detection respectively was developed at Oregon State University to address some of the challenges of the radioxenon systems deployed in the field such as memory effect, and poor energy resolution. Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) were used for sensing optical photons from all scintillation media. Real-time coincidence identification was achieved using the eight-channel digital pulse processor. The detection system was evaluated using lab check sources and Oregon State TRIGA reactor irradiated radioxenon samples. A 48-hour background coincidence spectrum was collected yielding a coincidence count rate and background rejection rate of 0.0174 ± 0.0003 counts per second (cps) and 98.9% respectively. The minimum detectable concentration (MDC) of the system was evaluated to be 0.11 ± 0.01, 0.13 ± 0.02, 0.20 ± 0.02, and 0.73 ± 0.08 for 131 mXe, 133 mXe, 133 Xe, and 135 Xe respectively. The memory effect of the detection system was found to be 0.069 ± 0.015%, which is almost a 70-fold reduction compared to traditional plastic scintillators. Here, the detection elements, custom-designed electronics, and the detector response to radioxenon are detailed in this work.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Skywalker v.2

SAND2022-2193 O Skywalker is a software library that facilitates the creation of test drivers for atmospheric parameterizations used in climate models. Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-NA0003525.

Overfelt, James↗
DOE OSTI2024

Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) Instrument Handbook

The Model 3936 Scanning Mobility Particle Spectrometer (SMPS) measures the size distribution of aerosols ranging from 10 nm up to 1000 nm. The SMPS uses a bipolar aerosol charger to keep particles within a known charge distribution. Charged particles are classified according to their electrical mobility, using a long-column differential mobility analyzer (DMA). Particle concentration is measured with a condensation particle counter (CPC). The SMPS is well-suited for applications including: nanoparticle research, atmospheric aerosol studies, pollution studies, smog chamber evaluations, engine exhaust and combustion studies, materials synthesis, filter efficiency testing, nucleation/condensation studies, and rapidly changing aerosol systems.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Real-Time Characterization of Salt Aerosols Generated from Static and Sparged Molten Salt

The formation of radionuclide-bearing aerosols in the respirable size range has the potential to significantly influence offsite dose consequences and is, therefore, an important consideration in nuclear facility safety assessments. Molten salt reactor (MSR) developers will likely need to demonstrate an understanding of the conditions under which radionuclide-bearing aerosols may be generated from their reactor under normal operating and accident conditions, as well as the characteristics and transport behavior of these aerosols, to demonstrate to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) that the facility can be operated safely. Recent reviews of the literature identified a lack of experimental data describing the mechanisms of formation and properties (size, concentration, and composition) of salt aerosol particles that are produced from molten salts. Experiments that identify the conditions that lead to radionuclide-bearing salt aerosol releases and quantify the characteristics of salt aerosols formed by different mechanisms are high-priority needs to support MSR licensing. This report describes tests that were conducted within the Argonne Salt Aerosol Test Stand (a sealed vessel and measurement system) to generate salt aerosols from static and sparged molten salts and measure their size and concentration in real-time. The results provide insight into salt aerosol formation by the vapor condensation and bubble bursting mechanisms and inform the potential radiological consequences of aerosol formation from molten fuel salt. Videos of the salt surface were taken during salt sparge tests to observe surface bubble behavior. The data in this report can be used to develop mechanistic source term and accident progression models for MSRs. The real-time salt aerosol characterization technique used in this study will be employed in future integral effects tests that are conducted at an engineering scale to simulate realistic MSR accidents and in future separate effects tests to address additional variables that may impact salt aerosol characteristics (e.g., presence of fission products in salt and humidity in atmosphere).

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

127 Xe quantification method development and intercomparison exercise

Monitoring of the atmosphere for fission products ( 131m Xe, 133m Xe, 133 Xe, and 135 Xe) is performed by various laboratories to detect nuclear explosions. Quantification of 127 Xe is not routinely performed by laboratories measuring atmospheric radioxenon because it is not a fission product. 127 Xe was recently detected by a ground-based beta-gamma air monitoring system. When measured using beta-gamma coincidence detector systems, such as those in use on the International Monitoring System (IMS) of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), 127 Xe can interfere with the quantification of fission product radioxenon due to overlap of the 127 Xe beta-gamma coincidence signatures with those of fission product radioxenon. Here, this work demonstrates quantification of 127 Xe at different laboratories with different measurement techniques. Production and purification of 127 Xe was performed by neutron activation of enriched 126 Xe. The purified 127 Xe was then split between laboratories, and detection and quantification methods were developed. At Idaho National Laboratory, a quantification method involving high purity germanium detectors was devised that included self-attenuation correction. At AWE, a beta-gamma coincidence counting method, as used in support of the IMS, was modified to enable the measurement and analysis of the 127 Xe samples. Corrections were made for self-attenuation, which showed a strong xenon volume dependency, for some coincidence signatures. The gas sample activity concentration was used as the comparison metric and it showed excellent agreement between the methods.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
DOE OSTI2025

Synthesis of Yttrium Oxide Particles for Interfacial Water Radiolysis Studies

Radiolysis of water produces hydrogen gas (H2), posing safety issues for nuclear reactors. Metal oxides can impact H2 formation when water is present on metal oxide surfaces. This presentation focuses on the development of a controllable synthesis of spherical yttrium oxide (Y2O3), that later will be tested for H2 production in water radiolysis. Y2O3 was synthesized via hydrothermal hydrolysis precipitation to form yttrium hydroxide (Y(OH)3), followed by high temperature decomposition to form Y2O3. Various synthesis conditions were tested to determine their impact on particle morphology including reaction time, cooling rate, reactant concentration, and inert atmospheres. Through short reaction times and rapid cooling rate, spherical, relatively uniform particles of 350 nm were obtained. Despite inert atmospheres, carbonate formation occurred in all particles. A calcination temperature of 800°C is necessary to remove impurities. Future work will aim to reduce carbonate formation and improve particle uniformity. The synthetic procedure will be translated to other metal ions to study their impact on interfacial radiolysis.

08 - HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2022

Spectroscopic signatures and oxidation characteristics of nanosecond laser-induced cerium plasmas

Improving technologies related to the wide area environmental sampling of nuclear materials supports the nuclear nonproliferation mission of preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons by monitoring nuclear weapons tests and detecting undeclared nuclear fuel cycle activities. Standoff, laser-based detection techniques such as laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy have the potential to offer robust, field-deployable methods that provide rapid element-specific and phase identifiable measurements over a wide range of materials. This work aims to elucidate the effects of atmospheric conditions and oxidation reactions on the highly complex and transient spectroscopic signatures of laser-induced plutonium surrogate plasmas. Time-resolved spectra of nanosecond laser ablation cerium plasmas were measured using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy in a range of atmospheres containing low to high concentrations of oxygen. Here, the growth of strong CeO molecular emission bands was observed in the visible spectrum, where it was shown that the persistence of CeO is reduced from around 60 μs to 50 μs in oxygen rich atmospheric environments. To further investigate the growth and depletion of CeO in the laser-produced plasma, ratios of CeO-to-Ce emission were generated using integrated intensities corresponding to the Q-branch of the CeO D 1 -X 1 transitions and numerous strong atomic Ce peaks. It was determined that the fastest rate of formation of CeO in argon occurred for moderate oxygen mass fractions between 0.10 and 0.15 while the ratios were reduced at higher oxygen mass fractions (i.e., Y O 2 = 0.20) due to competing oxidation reactions and lower plasma temperatures.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Large-Scale Image Analysis for Investigating Spatio-Temporal Changes in Nuclear DNA Damage Caused by Nitrogen Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jets

The effective clinical application of atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ) treatments requires a well-founded methodology that can describe the interactions between the plasma jet and a treated sample and the temporal and spatial changes that result from the treatment. In this study, we developed a large-scale image analysis method to identify the cell-cycle stage and quantify damage to nuclear DNA in single cells. The method was then tested and used to examine spatio-temporal distributions of nuclear DNA damage in two cell lines from the same anatomic location, namely the oral cavity, after treatment with a nitrogen APPJ. One cell line was malignant, and the other, nonmalignant. The results showed that DNA damage in cancer cells was maximized at the plasma jet treatment region, where the APPJ directly contacted the sample, and declined radially outward. As incubation continued, DNA damage in cancer cells decreased slightly over the first 4 h before rapidly decreasing by approximately 60% at 8 h post-treatment. In nonmalignant cells, no damage was observed within 1 h after treatment, but damage was detected 2 h after treatment. Notably, the damage was 5-fold less than that detected in irradiated cancer cells. Moreover, examining damage with respect to the cell cycle showed that S phase cells were more susceptible to DNA damage than either G1 or G2 phase cells. The proposed methodology for large-scale image analysis is not limited to APPJ post-treatment applications and can be utilized to evaluate biological samples affected by any type of radiation, and, more so, the cell-cycle classification can be used on any cell type with any nuclear DNA staining.

cellular imaging↗
DOE OSTI2021

Determination of oxidation rates and volatile oxidation products for HTGR graphite matrix material exposed to steam atmospheres

High-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs) in operation use tristructural isotropic (TRISO) particles embedded in graphite and carbonized resin matrix to form the fuel element. This graphite matrix material serves as a supportive structural element, heat transfer medium, and neutron moderator. In HTGR designs, fuel compacts are exposed to helium coolant, which facilitates high outlet temperatures (750°C 2 O, 800°C 2 , and H 2 , are quantified in varied oxidant atmospheres using a coupled thermogravimetric analyzer and mass spectrometer. Furthermore, oxidation rates reported here for varied steam (H 2 O [g]) atmospheres are predominantly linear and comparable with literature values in the range of tested temperatures (800–1200°C). Changes in dominant matrix oxidation products from primarily CO to a mixture of CO, CO 2 , and H 2 were observed at higher temperatures (≥1000°C) and steam atmospheres (≥5 kPa pH 2 O). Kinetic data indicates that there was no shift in oxidation regime with chemical oxidation occurring at all temperatures and H2O (g) atmospheres tested. These data provide insight into the oxidation behavior of graphite matrix material and will inform future testing conditions, notably mixed atmospheric conditions, of HTGR fuel elements.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Ambient Mass Spectrometry Rapid Analysis Methods for Trace Inorganics

The ability to rapidly detect and characterize the chemistry of trace quantities of inorganic species has multiple potential applications, including nuclear safeguards, nuclear forensics, and environmental monitoring. Some mass spectrometric methods currently exist, but they are costly and time-intensive, often destroying chemical information in the process of ionization. Ambient mass spectrometry is a relatively new analytical method in which samples are introduced to the mass spectrometer from atmospheric pressure, rather than from high vacuum. Ambient MS can operate with gentler ionization methods such as electrospray ionization (ESI) and paper-spray ionization (PSI), reducing fragmentation and preserving the chemical information of the analyte. This may be useful for determining the intended purpose of material in a sample. Strontium, part of nuclear fallout, is analyzed here to test these new analytical methods for viability. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry functions by spraying the sample as a solution through a needle charged to a few kV. A nebulizing gas flows out along with the sample to create the spray before droplets enter a drying chamber with heated drying gas to remove the solvent molecules. From there bare analyte ions enter the mass spectrometer. This method has the advantage of relatively fast sample preparation and stable ionization. More stable ionization produces higher-quality data. Paper-spray ionization mass spectrometry operates by applying sample to a paper triangle. The paper triangle is then electrified in a metal clamp to a few kV before spray solvent is applied. The spray solvent transports analyte in the sample to the tip, where it is ionized and enters the mass spectrometer. One advantage of this method is reduced sample preparation - an analyst can even swipe a surface and cut a triangle directly from the swipe. The data analysis serves to rapidly process tens of samples all at once. The mass spectrometer outputs a file containing a few hundred spectra for each sample. The pipeline processes each one to identify peaks of interest. A full palette of data analysis metrics are generated, including plots of the raw data and plots of calculated values such as isotopic ratios. The pipeline filters the raw data to remove noise and background peaks, as well as peaks representing detector saturation. A heat map is generated to show the overall spectrum in mass-time- intensity space. Post-processing, we obtained the desired calibration curves, demonstrating that both ESI-MS and PSI-MS are viable methods for quantifying trace amounts of inorganics while retaining their chemical speciation information. ESI-MS demonstrated a linear response region of 100 ppb to 20 ppm, with a limit-of-detection of around 100 ppb. At top left is an example spectrum with the {sup 88}SrNO{sub 3} peak identified to show the retention of chemical speciation. PSI-MS showed a linear response region of around 1 ppb to 1 ppm, with a limit-of-detection of near 1 ppb. PSI-MS produced more erratic results than ESI-MS, likely due to the variability in ionization resulting from manual positioning of the paper triangle near the MS inlet. Future efforts will focus on improving the repeatability of PSI-MS as well as analyzing other species of interest such as cerium and uranium. Improvements will also be made to create more reliable data extraction and intelligent data filtering.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗