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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Blading Phase–Pure Formamidinium–Alloyed Perovskites for High–Efficiency Solar Cells with Low Photovoltage Deficit and Improved Stability

Currently, blade-coated perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with high power conversion efficiencies (PCEs), i.e. greater than 20%, normally employ methylammonium lead tri-iodide with a sub-optimal bandgap. Alloyed perovskites with formamidinium (FA) cation have narrower bandgap and thus enhance device photocurrent. However, FA-alloyed perovskites show low phase stability and high moisture sensitivity. Here, we report that incorporating 0.83 molar percent organic halide salts (OHs) into the perovskite inks enables phase-pure, highly crystalline FA-alloyed perovskites with extraordinary optoelectronic properties. Here, the OH molecules modulate the crystal growth, enhance the phase stability, passivate ionic defects at the surface and/or grain boundaries, and enhance the moisture stability of the perovskite film. We demonstrate a high efficiency of 22.0% under 1 sun illumination for blade-coated PSCs with an open-circuit voltage of 1.18 V, corresponding to a very small voltage deficit of 0.33 V, and significantly improved operational stability with 96% of the initial efficiency retained under one sun illumination for 500 hours.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

PdCu Electrocatalysts for Selective Nitrate and Nitrite Reduction to Nitrogen

Electrocatalytic conversion of nitrate in waste can enable efficient waste remediation (NO 3 - to N 2 ) or waste valorization (NO 3 - to NH 4 + ) depending on the selectivity of the catalyst. Palladium and copper electrocatalysts typically exhibit ideal nitrate and nitrite binding properties, allowing for effective destruction of nitrate. However, rational steering of selectivity through material design remains a critical challenge for PdCu electrocatalyst. Here, we use the electrochemical underpotential deposition method to synthesize palladium nanocube electrocataysts with controlled copper surface coverage (e.g., partial and full copper coatings). We then examine the potential for NO 3 - destruction (conversion) and NO 2 - reduction reaction. We identify that partial copper-coated Pd nanocubes not only effectively facilitate the reduction of 95% of NO 3 - but also increase the reduction of NO 2 - to N 2 with 89% selectivity over 20 consecutive cycles (80 h). We also show that under these conditions, the Pd(100) surface facet is exposed. Complete copper-covered Pd nanocubes effectively facilitate the reduction of ~99% of NO 3 - . Complete coverage of copper; however, prevented exposure of Pd(100) surface facet, promoting the selective reduction of NO 2 - to NH 4 + with a 70% selectivity over 20 consecutive cycles (80 h). Density functional theory (DFT) calculations show that NO 3 - and NO 2 - adsorb more strongly on the Cu(100) surface compared to the Pd(100) surface, while the NO* intermediate generated from NO 3 - or NO 2 - reduction adsorbs more strongly on the Pd surface. Furthermore, barrier calculations show that NO* can readily migrate from the Cu domain to the Pd domain and that the N–N coupling barrier on Pd is significantly diminished at high NO* coverage. Together, these results suggest that the high N 2 selectivity observed on the PdCu electrocatalyst is caused by the spillover of NO* from the Cu domains to the Pd domains.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Tailoring Interfaces for Enhanced Methanol Production from Photoelectrochemical CO 2 Reduction

Efficient and stable photoelectrochemical reduction of CO 2 into highly reduced liquid fuels remains a formidable challenge, which requires an innovative semiconductor/catalyst interface to tackle. In this study, we introduce a strategy involving the fabrication of a silicon micropillar array structure coated with a superhydrophobic fluorinated carbon layer for the photoelectrochemical conversion of CO 2 into methanol. The pillars increase the electrode surface area, improve catalyst loading and adhesion without compromising light absorption, and help confine gaseous intermediates near the catalyst surface. The superhydrophobic coating passivates parasitic side reactions and further enhances local accumulation of reaction intermediates. Upon one-electron reduction of the molecular catalyst, the semiconductor–catalyst interface changes from adaptive to buried junctions, providing a sufficient thermodynamic driving force for CO 2 reduction. These structures together create a unique microenvironment for effective reduction of CO 2 to methanol, leading to a remarkable Faradaic efficiency reaching 20% together with a partial current density of 3.4 mA cm –2 , surpassing the previous record based on planar silicon photoelectrodes by a notable factor of 17. Furthermore, this work demonstrates a new pathway for enhancing photoelectrocatalytic CO 2 reduction through meticulous interface and microenvironment tailoring and sets a benchmark for both Faradaic efficiency and current density in solar liquid fuel production.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Mixed-flow design for microfluidic printing of two-component polymer semiconductor systems

The rational creation of two-component conjugated polymer systems with high levels of phase purity in each component is challenging but crucial for realizing printed soft-matter electronics. Here, we report a mixed-flow microfluidic printing (MFMP) approach for two-component π -polymer systems that significantly elevates phase purity in bulk-heterojunction solar cells and thin-film transistors. MFMP integrates laminar and extensional flows using a specially microstructured shear blade, designed with fluid flow simulation tools to tune the flow patterns and induce shear, stretch, and pushout effects. This optimizes polymer conformation and semiconducting blend order as assessed by atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS), resonant soft X-ray scattering (R-SoXS), photovoltaic response, and field effect mobility. For printed all-polymer (poly[(5,6-difluoro-2-octyl-2H-benzotriazole-4,7-diyl)-2,5-thiophenediyl[4,8-bis[5-(2-hexyldecyl)-2-thienyl]benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b′]dithiophene-2,6-diyl]-2,5-thiophenediyl]) [J51]:(poly{[N,N′-bis(2-octyldodecyl)naphthalene-1,4,5,8-bis(dicarboximide)-2,6-diyl]-alt-5,5′-(2,2′-bithiophene)}) [N2200]) solar cells, this approach enhances short-circuit currents and fill factors, with power conversion efficiency increasing from 5.20% for conventional blade coating to 7.80% for MFMP. Moreover, the performance of mixed polymer ambipolar [poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT):N2200] and semiconducting:insulating polymer unipolar (N2200:polystyrene) transistors is similarly enhanced, underscoring versatility for two-component π -polymer systems. Mixed-flow designs offer modalities for achieving high-performance organic optoelectronics via innovative printing methodologies.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

High-efficiency, air-stable manganese–iron oxide nanoparticle-pigmented solar selective absorber coatings toward concentrating solar power systems operating at 750 °C

Solar selective absorber coating with long-term thermal stability at high temperatures ≥750 °C in air is an important component to reduce the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of concentrating solar power (CSP) systems toward 50% power efficiency and dispatchable solar electricity. Conventionally, solar spectral selectivity requires multilayer-interference coatings implemented by stringently controlled vacuum deposition, and these coatings degrade significantly at >700 °C in air. Herein, we established a quantitative design approach and demonstrated a proof-of-concept air-stable, manganese–iron oxide nanoparticle (NP)-pigmented solar selective coatings with a high solar absorptance of ~93%, a relatively low thermal emittance of ~52%, and an optical-to-thermal energy conversion efficiency >89% under 1,000× solar concentration at 750 °C toward Generation 3 CSP systems. These coatings demonstrate spectral selectivity using cost-effective spray coating approach, a notable improvement over conventional vacuum-deposited, multilayer solar selective coatings for low-cost, high-efficiency solar thermal receivers. In contrast to the thermal degradation of spectrally non-selective benchmark Pyromark 2500 coatings at 750 °C in air, the solar absorptance of the MnFe 2 O 4 -pigmented coatings on stainless steel 310 (SS 310) substrates is increased to ~92.9% and the optical-to-thermal energy conversion efficiency is improved to 89.7% after serving at 750 °C in air for 700 h. X-ray diffraction results reveal that this improvement is due to the transformation of MnFe 2 O 4 NPs into more thermodynamically stable, non-stoichiometric manganese-rich manganese ferrite and iron-rich manganese–iron oxide phases after 500 h aging at 750 °C. For >1,000 h-endurance testing at 750 °C in air and the subsequent 19 day-night thermal cycling between 750 °C (12 h/cycle) and 25 °C (12 h/cycle) on SS 310 substrates, the thermal degradation is mainly due to the CrO x microflake formation from SS 310 substrates rather than the coatings, which can be suppressed by preoxidizing the surface of SS 310. With lower emittance matrix material and further optimization of pigment NP stoichiometry, concentration, and coating thickness, it is promising to achieve an optimized thermal efficiency ≥92.5% with long-term thermal stability at 750 °C for Generation 3 CSP systems.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Understanding the Solution Dynamics and Binding of a PVDF Binder with Silicon, Graphite, and NMC Materials and the Influence on Cycling Performance

The impact of the binding, solution structure, and solution dynamics of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) with silicon on its performance as compared to traditional graphite and Li 1.05 Ni 0.33 Mn 0.33 Co 0.33 O 2 (NMC) electrode materials was explored. Through refractive index (RI) measurements, the concentration of the binder adsorbed on the surface of electrode materials during electrode processing was determined to be less than half of the potentially available material resulting in excessive free binder in solution. Using ultrasmall-angle neutron scattering (USANS) and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), it was found that PVDF forms a conformal coating over the entirety of the silicon particle. This is in direct contrast to graphite–PVDF and NMC–PVDF slurries, where PVDF only covers part of the graphite surface, and the PVDF chains make a network-like graphite–PVDF structure. Conversely, a thick layer of PVDF covers NMC particles, but the coating is porous, allowing for ion and electronic transport. The homogeneous coating of silicon breaks up percolation pathways, resulting in poor cycling performance of silicon materials as widely reported. These results indicate that the Si–PVDF interactions could be modified from a binder to a dispersant.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Accelerated Discovery and Design of Ultralow Lattice Thermal Conductivity Materials Using Chemical Bonding Principles

Semiconductors with very low lattice thermal conductivities are highly desired for applications relevant to thermal energy conversion and management, such as thermoelectrics and thermal barrier coatings. Although the crystal structure and chemical bonding are known to play vital roles in shaping heat transfer behavior, material design approaches of lowering lattice thermal conductivity using chemical bonding principles are uncommon. In this work, an effective strategy of weakening interatomic interactions and therefore suppressing lattice thermal conductivity based on chemical bonding principles is presented and a high-efficiency approach of discovering low κ L materials by screening the local coordination environments of crystalline compounds is developed. The resulting first-principles calculations uncover 30 hitherto unexplored compounds with (ultra)low lattice thermal conductivities from 13 prototype crystal structures contained in the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database. Furthermore, an approach of rationally designing high-performance thermoelectrics is demonstrated by additionally incorporating cations with stereochemically active lone-pair electrons. Here these results not only provide atomic-level insights into the physical origin of the low lattice thermal conductivity in a large family of copper/silver-based compounds but also offer an efficient approach to discover and design materials with targeted thermal transport properties.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Tunable Atomic Layer Deposition into Ultra-High-Aspect-Ratio (>60000:1) Aerogel Monoliths Enabled by Transport Modeling

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) modification of ultra-high-aspect-ratio structures (>10,000:1) is a powerful platform with applications in catalysis, filtration, and energy conversion. However, the deposition of conformal and tunable ALD coatings at these aspect ratios remains challenging, resulting in empirical tradeoffs between precursor utilization and reaction time. Here, we demonstrate tunable control of the ALD infiltration depth into an aerogel monolith (AM) and develop a reaction-diffusion model to accurately describe the coating process. Specifically, we investigate the ALD exposure time and precursor dose needed to conformally coat a silica AM with pore sizes of ~20 nm, a monolith thickness of ~2.5 mm, and aspect ratios exceeding 60,000:1. We demonstrate complete infiltration into the AM, which is quantified by elemental mapping. A reaction-diffusion model is developed, which accounts for multiple doses and precursor depletion in the ALD chamber during an exposure step. The experimentally validated model enables the prediction and tuning of infiltration depth into a tortuous, high-aspect-ratio structure such as an AM, allowing for the synthesis of rationally designed material architectures. Additionally, the model allows for co-optimization of the total deposition time and percentage of unreacted precursor, which are important for the manufacturability and sustainability of ALD processing. Lastly, we demonstrate that ultra-thin ALD Al 2 O 3 coatings can be used to stabilize silica AMs against structural degradation under high-temperature annealing conditions (700-800 °C), by limiting changes in surface area and monolith volume. As a result, this improved high-temperature stability has implications for numerous aerogel applications, including catalysis and thermal insulation.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Coating adhesion of a chromate-containing epoxy primer on Al2024-T3 surface processed by laser-interference

In this work, the coating adhesion test results are presented for a primer that was coated on laser-interference structured surfaces of as-received Al2024-T3 specimens, i.e., without employing any polishing, cleaning, or any other surface alteration techniques. All of the laser-interference processing was performed by splitting the primary beam of a Q-switched Nd:YAG pulsed nanosecond laser into two beams and focused them to the same spot. The specimens were spray painted with a chromate-containing epoxy primer, CA7233, compliant to MIL-PRF-23377 Type I Class C2 specification. The adhesion of primer on Al surface with different treatments was assessed using the ASTM D3359 X-cut and cross-hatch tests. It was found that the laser processed specimens meet the performance requirements in the coating adhesion specifications by having a higher or identical ranking for coating adhesion specimens than those prepared with current state-of-the-art chemical conversion or sulfuric acid anodizing. The rastering with either 4 mm/s or 6 mm/s with a laser fluence of 1.78 J/cm2 is recommended to attain acceptable coating adhesion, even higher than that with the anodizing surface treatment.These results indicate that laser-interference shows significant potential as a non-chemical surface preparation technique for these coatings.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Enhancing Oxygen Reduction Activity and Cr Tolerance of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Cathodes by a Multiphase Catalyst Coating

Intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFCs) are cost-effective and efficient energy conversion systems. Here, the sluggish oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and the degradation of cathodes are critical challenges to the commercialization of IT-SOFCs. Here, a highly efficient multiphase (MP) catalyst coating, consisting of Ba 1–x Co 0.7 Fe 0.2 Nb 0.1 O 3–δ (BCFN) and BaCO 3 , to enhance the ORR activity and durability of the state-of-the-art lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite (La 0.6 Sr 0.4 Co 0.2 Fe 0.8 O 3–δ , LSCF) cathode is reported. The conformal MP catalyst-coated LSCF cathode shows a polarization resistance (R p ) of 0.048 Ω cm 2 at 650 °C, about one order of magnitude smaller than that of the bare LSCF. In an accelerated Cr-poisoning test, the degradation rate of the catalyst-coated LSCF electrode is 10 –3 Ω cm 2 h –1 (0.59% h –1 ) over 200 h, only one fifth of the degradation rate of the bare LSCF electrode at 750 °C. In addition, anode-supported single cells with the MP catalyst-coated LSCF cathode show a dramatically enhanced peak power density (1.4 W cm –2 vs 0.67 W cm –2 at 750 °C) and increased durability against Cr and H 2 O. Both experimental results and density functional theory-based calculations indicate that the BCFN phase improves the ORR activity while the BaCO 3 phase enhances the stability of the LSCF cathode.

solid oxide fuel cells↗
DOE OSTI2025

Conformal high-entropy oxide coatings enable fast and durable surface oxygen reactions

Developing active and durable air electrodes for efficient oxygen reactions is challenging for protonic ceramic cells (PCCs), especially at temperatures below 550°C. Here, in this study, we report a rationally designed conformal coating with a high-entropy PrNi 0.2 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 Fe 0.2 Cu 0.2 O 3−δ (PNMCFC) perovskite structure on the surface of a state-of-the-art PrBaCo 2 O 5+δ (PBC) air electrode. The formed hybrid air electrode (PNMCFC-PBC) shows faster surface oxygen kinetics and a more stable phase structure in high-humidity air than the bare PBC electrode. Further density functional theory calculations suggest that the conformal coating mitigates Ba segregation at the interface and improves oxygen-related reactions, enhancing overall stability and electrocatalytic performance. The cells with the developed hybrid electrodes show encouraging electrochemical performance at 550°C: a polarization resistance of 0.72 Ω cm 2 , a peak power density of 1.30 W cm −2 , an electrolysis current density of −1.36 A cm −2 at 1.3 V, and reasonable operating stabilities (∼200 h at 550°C).

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2023

A New Simultaneous Membrane Thickness and Catalyst Loading Measurement for Fuel Cell Proton-Exchange Assemblies by $\mathrm{IR}$ Transmission

Here, we present a study of mid-infrared (mid-IR) transmission through typical proton-exchange fuel cell and water electrolyzer catalyst-coated membrane materials, and the determination of membrane layer thickness, and catalyst layer loading, from the power of the transmitted beam. Measured membrane thicknesses lay in the range of 25-125 um, and catalyst areal loadings range from 0.05 to 0.35 mg/cm 2 . We show that the transmission spectrum correlated to membrane thickness and catalyst loading values separately, and also used a mathematical model to calculate both quantities simultaneously, from a single measurement of transmission. Measurements were carried out using a Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer, in specular transmission mode, in the wavelength range of 3-13 um (3333-770 cm -1 ). We discuss the potential application of this method to the development of roll-to-roll manufacturing full-area-scanning quality inspection of catalyst-coated membrane (CCM) materials.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Aperiodic optical coatings for neutral-color semi-transparent organic photovoltaics

Semi-transparent organic photovoltaics (ST-OPVs) have the potential for integration with windows for ubiquitous power generating applications. Typically, such applications require that ST-OPVs be neutrally transparent across the visible and exhibit both a high average photopic transmittance (APT) and color rendering index, as well as iso-energetic chromaticity coordinates. In this work, we demonstrate the design and use of optical coatings to achieve ST-OPVs with a neutral visible transmittance of APT = 50%, a power conversion efficiency of 8.3%, and optical properties that are independent of a ± 30° variation in the solar angle of incidence. As a result, these simple optical coatings are rapidly designed using a genetic algorithm and transfer matrix formalism.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Rapid scalable fabrication of roll-to-roll slot-die coated flexible perovskite solar cells using intense pulse light annealing

Perovskite solar cells have achieved high efficiencies at the lab scale using batch processes that often may not be scalable. Processes that can be integrated into a continuous manufacturing platform, such as roll-to-roll, where several processes can be carried out sequentially are necessary to develop a new cost-competitive solar technology. In this work, intense pulsed light thermal post-processing is coupled with scalable slot-die coating and air knife evaporation in a high-speed roll-to-roll process of up to 2 m min –1 . The optimization of IPL energy parameters, web speeds, solution flow rates, and concentration of precursor inks yielded a champion power conversion efficiency of 11.24% for a 1 cm 2 roll-to-roll coated device. The overall processing time for a single layer in this process is reduced from minutes to seconds and the overall footprint of the manufacturing process is decreased. Furthermore, this demonstrates the promising capabilities for intensed pulsed light to reduce manufacturing costs and paves a roadmap for scalable and efficient PSCs on a roll-to-roll platform.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Regulating crystallization to maintain balanced carrier mobility via ternary strategy in blade-coated flexible organic solar cells

Regulating the crystallization of donor and acceptor to maintain balanced carrier mobility is of great importance to fabricate efficient organic solar cells (OSCs). Herein, the balanced crystallinity between donor and acceptor was finely controlled in blade-coated OSCs. By adding high crystalline FOIC into PBDB-T:ITIC system, a balanced carrier mobility was achieved, resulting in the much improved fill factor. The optimized ternary device exhibits an increased current density, due to the enhanced light-harvesting efficiency with complementary absorption and the morphology change. Morphology characterization demonstrated that the ternary film exhibits a highly balanced crystallinity between the donor and acceptor on account of the formation of acceptor alloy. Moreover, the ternary film not only possesses a small domain size, but also exhibits a high domain purity as compared to both binary films. Encouragingly, a highest power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 10.68% was obtained for the blade-coated ternary OSCs. In addition, the blade-coated flexible large-area (105 mm 2 ) OSC based on PBDB-T:ITIC:FOIC ternary system also exhibits a high PCE of 9.81%, showing great potential in the high-throughput fabrication of OSCs.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Stabilizing perovskite-substrate interfaces for high-performance perovskite modules

The interfaces of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are important in determining their efficiency and stability, but the morphology and stability of imbedded perovskite-substrate interfaces have received less attention than have top interfaces. We found that dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which is a liquid additive broadly applied to enhance perovskite film morphology, was trapped during film formation and led to voids at perovskite-substrate interfaces that accelerated the film degradation under illumination. Partial replacement of DMSO with solid-state carbohydrazide reduces interfacial voids. A maximum stabilized power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 23.6% was realized for blade-coated p-type/intrinsic/n-type (p-i-n) structure PSCs with no efficiency loss after 550-hour operational stability tests at 60°C. The perovskite mini-modules showed certified PCEs of 19.3 and 19.2%, with aperture areas of 18.1 and 50.0 square centimeters, respectively.

Chen, Shangshang↗
DOE OSTI2025

Solar Spectrum Conversion for an Algae Bioreactor (CRADA Final Report)

This project focused on developing advanced optical coatings to improve solar energy utilization. The research aimed to create lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) capable of capturing unused near-infrared (NIR) light from the sun and converting it into visible light (blue and red photons) that can be used for photosynthesis. The primary goal was to identify, synthesize, and integrate highly efficient UCNPs into a transparent thin-film device. Through a comprehensive workflow involving computer simulations, high-throughput robotic synthesis, and detailed optical characterization, the project successfully developed a high-performance material. The key technical achievement was the creation of a core-shell UCNP (NaYF₄:20%Yb³⁺, 2%Er³⁺ coated with a 10 nm NaYF₄ shell) that demonstrated a quantum yield of 3.2% for converting 980 nm NIR light into visible light. Transparent thin films fabricated from these nanoparticles showed excellent optical properties, confirming their potential for practical applications. This research adds to the scientific understanding of energy transfer in lanthanide materials and demonstrates a technically effective method for creating efficient light-converting coatings. The primary benefit to the public lies in the potential for these coatings to enhance the efficiency of solar-driven processes, such as boosting the growth of algae in photobioreactors for biofuel production.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

IPL-Annealed Mixed-Cation Perovskites with Robust Coating Window toward Scalable Manufacturing of Commercial Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are a promising alternative solar technology, but the technical challenges of (1) stability/durability, (2) efficiency at scale, and (3) manufacturability must be overcome to achieve widespread PSC commercialization. The challenge of balancing solution ink formulation and scalable manufacturing is often overlooked in the literature, where focus is on adopting inks from processes that will not scale. In this study, we apply a classical roll-to-roll manufacturing perspective, utilizing both compositional engineering and intense pulsed light (IPL) annealing, to develop a mixed-cation perovskite ink with a robust coating window that simultaneously solve issues of stability and manufacturability for PSCs. Our method resulted in blade-coated, flexible, mixed-cation PSCs on ITO-PET substrates with a champion power conversion efficiency (PCE) efficiency of 16.7% using IPL annealing of the absorber layer and, to our knowledge, is one of the fastest processing methods for the perovskite layer. This overall reduction in processing time with a stable ink represents an advance toward the scaled production of perovskite solar cells on flexible substrates.

flexible perovskite solar cells↗