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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Thermal Stability of LiNi x Mn y Co z O 2 Cathode Materials

Here, the thermal evolution of LiNi x Mn y Co z O 2 (NMC) lithium-ion battery electrode materials is examined at various states of charge (SOC) or lithium concentrations for a variety of Ni:Mn:Co ratios or electrode compositions. Synchrotron X-ray diffraction (XRD) combined with Rietveld analysis shows the onset decomposition temperatures of phases, decomposition products, lattice parameters, and phase fractions as a function of composition and SOC. SOC impacts the lattice parameters of the NMC phase, where a collapse of the c-axis in the NMC phases is noted due to lithium extraction. Among the compositions examined, the low-Ni NMC111 uncycled sample (NMC111 0% SOC) exhibited the highest thermal stability, with a decomposition temperature approximately 250 °C higher than that of NMC532 0% and NMC811 0%. When the SOC exceeds 50% (i.e., more than 0.4 mol of Li ions extracted), the influence of Ni content on the decomposition temperature becomes negligible, with decomposition occurring around 250−300 °C for all compositions. Ni content also affects the decomposition pathways: NMC111 tends to first form a TM 3 O 4 -type phase, where TM represents transition metals, before transforming into a TMO-type phase, whereas most of the NMC811 samples directly decompose into the TMO phase. The presence of metallic phases was confirmed by both XRD and thermogravimetric-differential scanning calorimetry (TGA-DSC) analysis, as a result of heating under inert conditions. The TGA-DSC results suggest that metallic phase formation is favored at lower SOC in samples with a higher Ni content. This work provides comprehensive insight into the thermal degradation pathways of NMC materials as a function of composition, SOC, and temperature.

Peng, Jian [Univ. of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effects of Particle Mixing and Gravitational Settling on Charge Transport in Carbon Flow-Electrode Cells

Flowable carbon slurries are actively studied and under development for charge transport in various electrochemical systems including flow capacitors, capacitive deionization cells, semi-solid flow batteries, and lithium extraction. However, much less is known about in operando slurry flow dynamics and their corresponding effect on charge transport. We performed an experimental study of mixing and settling dynamics of slurry electrodes within an electrochemical flow cell during continuous operations. The electrochemical cell consisted of two horizontal co-flowing channels, separated by a cation-exchange membrane (CEM). Here we used high-speed optical imaging of planes parallel to gravity and simultaneous electrochemical measurements. At low flow rates, dense yet dynamic particle beds formed on the bottom electrode in each channel, which unexpectedly yielded the highest currents. This approach enables the operation of the flow cell at low system-average particle concentrations while leveraging gravity-driven particle settling to locally enhance carbon concentrations precisely at the current collector sites. Conversely, high flow rates were characterized by thin particle beds and well-mixed particle flows. In the latter case, the electrodes in closest proximity (located on either side of the CEM) achieved a current higher than the other electrode pairs. The observations have implications for slurry control and electrode designs in electrochemical systems.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Impact of Charge Voltage on Factors Influencing Capacity Fade in Layered NMC622: Multimodal X-ray and Electrochemical Characterization

Ni-rich NMC is an attractive Li-ion battery cathode due to its combination of energy density, thermal stability, and reversibility. While higher delivered energy density can be achieved with a more positive charge voltage limit, this approach compromises sustained reversibility. Improved understanding of the local and bulk structural transformations as a function of charge voltage, and their associated impacts on capacity fade are critically needed. Through simultaneous operando synchrotron X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) of cells cycled at 3–4.3 or 3–4.7 V, this study presents an in-depth investigation into the effects of voltage window on local coordination, bulk structure, and oxidation state. These measurements are complemented by ex situ X-ray fluorescence (XRF) mapping and scanning electrochemical microscopy mapping (SECM) of the negative electrode, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the positive electrode, and cell level electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Initially, cycling between 3 and 4.7 V leads to greater delivered capacity due to greater lithium extraction, accompanied by increased structural distortion, moderately higher Ni oxidation, and substantially higher Co oxidation. Continued cycling at this high voltage results in suppressed Ni and Co redox, greater structural distortion, increased levels of transition metal dissolution, higher cell impedance, and 3× greater capacity fade.

capacity fading mechanisms↗
DOE OSTI2022

Salton Sea Geothermal Development: Nontechnical Barriers to Entry – Analysis and Perspectives

Geothermal energy offers an opportunity to generate baseload, renewable energy that can help support the transition to an energy economy with reduced impacts on climate change and replace older, more expensive, nonrenewable, and more resource-impacting energy-generation facilities. The United States has the largest known geothermal resource in the world, with over 31 GW of conventional geothermal potential. However, due to market conditions, an inability to properly quantify both electrical grid benefits and resource stability, and the difficulty of exploring and developing the geothermal resource, few new geothermal projects have come online over the past three decades. The Salton Sea, in Imperial County, California, provides a prime location and opportunity to develop new geothermal resources. The Salton Sea contains a robust, well-mapped, geothermal resource, with opportunities for concurrent development of lithium and other mineral resources. This report describes the history of geothermal development at the Salton Sea and compares geothermal to other renewable energy sources in the area. The report then uses a techno-economic analysis (TEA) model to analyze the relative benefits and costs of various challenges and opportunities and provides recommendations for streamlining geothermal development at the Salton Sea and elsewhere. The challenges and opportunities analyzed in the TEA model were informed by stakeholder interviews and literature reviews. Based upon the identified challenges and opportunities and the results of the TEA model, primary findings are that certain nontechnical barriers such as permitting costs play only a minor role in determining the viability of development of the geothermal resource at the Salton Sea. Other barriers such as permitting timelines, government/agency coordination, and the potential co-location of lithium extraction with a geothermal plant may result in much larger impacts on project viability.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Lithium Production in North America: A Review

This report provides a detailed literature review and preliminary life cycle inventory for producing lithium (Li) chemicals—lithium carbonate (Li 2 CO 3 ) and lithium hydroxide (LiOH)—from sedimentary clays in the North America, as was incorporated into the GREET® 2023 model release. It also updates the status and life cycle inventory of Li chemical production from low Li content brines via direct lithium extraction (DLE) from our previous work in GREET 2022. All life cycle inventory updates are based on preliminary economic assessment studies conducted by various commercial entities engaged in this industry. If produced successfully, Li chemicals from North American reserves can be significant in meeting the United States’ strategic goal of ensuring a robust and secure supply of a strategic mineral that is critical to its decarbonization initiatives.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Environmental Impact Assessment of Lithium Recovery from Geothermal Brines in the SS-KGRA: An Overview

There is increasing interest in securing a reliable, domestic source of lithium in the United States to support an electrified grid and energy secure future. The Salton Sea Known Geothermal Resource Area (SS-KGRA) has garnered attention for this purpose due to the abundance of lithium in brines brought to the surface for geothermal energy production in this region. Geothermal production from this field is already expected to grow from the current 400 MWe to 920 MWe in the next 3-4 years with a potential total geothermal capacity in the region estimated at nearly 2,950 MWe. With this growth, there is potential for construction and operation of new direct lithium recovery and processing facilities to meet domestic demands for lithium. In this work, we estimate the potential impact of geothermal expansion and lithium extraction in the SS-KGRA on water use, direct air emissions from facilities, and solid waste production and management.

Busse, MM↗
DOE OSTI2025

New directions and principles for solvent extraction for recovery of lithium from aqueous brines and mineral leachates: A brief review

Increasing demand for lithium for manufacturing of batteries is fueling the unprecedented search for improved recovery and alternative sources. Wider source distribution, lower energy consumption, and greater sustainability make extraction of lithium from brines, both natural and process-derived, an attractive alternative to mineral ores. Solvent extraction, used industrially for production of metals, salts, and pharmaceuticals, has been investigated as a methodology for lithium recovery for several decades. However, industrial application of solvent extraction for lithium recovery has so far been limited. In contrast, direct lithium extraction using adsorbents based on inorganic minerals has rapidly advanced from research to commercialization. A comparison of solvent extraction processes to adsorption highlights these issues and explains the preference for adsorbents. Although the application of solvent extraction has been criticized for use of large amounts of acid, alkali, and organic solvents, steady progress has been made to improve its potential for industrial lithium production, spurred on generally by the advantages of solvent extraction in selectivity and throughput. Previously developed beta-diketone, organophosphate, and crown ether ligands are being adapted and improved. Their novel use with ionic liquids, deep eutectic solvents, and membrane technologies promises to expand capabilities for extraction of lithium from dilute aqueous sources while improving sustainability. Possibilities for further discovery and innovation abound. In this review, we provide a unique perspective from the field of solvent extraction starting with fundamentals such as ion-transfer theory and apply them to understanding lithium selectivity and extraction behavior. In conclusion, the results are cast in the light of the practical realities of developing economical solvent extraction processes.

Brine↗
DOE OSTI2026

Microchannel-based Membrane-less Extraction of Li from Unconventional Lithium Sources & the Separation of REE

This final report provides an overview of the Project's entire duration, covering July 1, 2021 to December 31, 2023. It primarily focuses on the achievements, technological developments, and unique challenges the team faced while working on separating and extracting Lithium from produced waters. The project's primary aim was to create an integrated, high-throughput, membrane-less, and modular microfluidic platform that could extract Lithium from unconventional sources. We have successfully met all goals and milestones envisioned in the SOPO document. The most critical primary milestones, including the Go-No-Go milestone (refer to the Gantt chart in the Appendices), were successfully accomplished. We demonstrated phase separation (>90%) and extraction (>85%) performance in the MPSE using synthetic, and representative produced water composition feed at 50 ml/min total flow through MPSE 36. We have also performed a parametric study of the MPSE operations, beyond the scope of SOPO, exploring operating conditions of current and broader interest. The extended investigation of operational parameters is concurrent with our efforts to seek further development of the MPSE technology beyond the scope of the Project. Along these lines of development, we have made efforts to be responsive to DOE calls for technological developments of other types of resources (beyond PW) for the recovery of Critical Materials and higher TRL development (beyond TRL 4). During the work on this Project, we developed and implemented three innovative technical approaches that emerged from our efforts to successfully meet the Project milestones. The innovative & original technical approaches developed and implemented in this Project are now the contributions to process engineering that could be clearly credited to the Project. First, Convergent Design Approach is a comprehensive feedforward & feedback loop of four design phases: i) design for functionality, ii) design for manufacturing, iii) design for sustainability, and iv) design for market. Next was Process Intensification. A major aim of this Project was to create an innovative phase separation & extraction microscale-based technology for Li separation – thus the words microchannel-based in the Project title. A microscale-based technology is intrinsically in the center of the Process Intensification domain as defined by its unique principles. Therefore, Process Intensification was implicitly envisioned in the Project’s SOPO. Lastly, Time Scale Analysis is a novel tool for discovering the needs and directions of Process Intensification implementations in any process technology. This Project is fully credited for developing and implementing the three novel technical approaches mentioned above. These are general contributions to process engineering that emerged from this Project. Beyond the original SOPO scope, the OSU-U.Pitt research group utilized a Convergent Design methodology, integrating first-principles mathematical modeling with experimental validation on the Minimum Development Vehicle. By creating these Digital Twins, the team rapidly assessed manufacturing iterations to support TEA analysis. This framework further enabled the development of advanced Surface Modification Techniques, where hydrophobic and oleophobic coating strategies were optimized via Digital Twin tools and validated through rigorous 100-hour longevity testing. TEA Analysis: The closing efforts of this Project were focused on the TEA analysis. TEA analysis had two primary functions: i) enabling critical assessments of design variations withing 10 the Concurrent Design Approach, thus enabling evolution of the MPSE design to reach faster- better-cheaper alternatives; and ii) to create a bridge between the accomplishments of this Project and future projects of higher TRL, beyond TRL 6 level. It is important to note that the TEA model created in the Project stirred the technological solutions for the recovery of critical materials toward a vision of a very profitable modular plant that has unique zero-waste water discharge signature. More importantly, thanks to our experimental performance data and conservative assumptions, the TEA model predicts minimal technological and investment risks. Low cost of a modular unit of a nominal capacity of [1000 tons of Li 2 CO 3 /year] positions the MPSE based technology within the reach of community investors, thus offering a paradigm shift in the development of critical technologies. The project successfully navigated two primary challenges: solvent selection and manufacturing adaptation. Restricted by the SOPO to existing literature for lithium recovery, the team identified a critical need for a "material excellence program" to develop next-generation solvents, eventually concluding with a preliminary investigation into promising Ionic Liquids (ILs). Simultaneously, COVID-19 supply chain disruptions forced a pivot from traditional manufacturing to advanced additive methods at ATAMI-OSU. By transitioning from stainless steel to 3D-printed polymer substrates, the team achieved a transformative three-order-of- magnitude reduction in manufacturing costs and compressed prototyping timelines from several months to just two days. The MPSE technology offers significant energy, environmental, and economic advantages by overcoming the traditional bottlenecks of phase-separation hardware and contactor size. Unlike conventional mixer-settlers or membrane-based systems, MPSE operates without moving parts or fouling-prone membranes, achieving robust performance even with challenging, viscous, or particulate-heavy feeds. Key performance metrics include an energy intensity reduction of 5–50x (3–40 kJ/m 3 ) compared to incumbent technologies and a dramatic reduction of processing time to under 60 seconds, which drastically reduces the physical plant footprint. These technical efficiencies translate into superior economic outcomes; for a 100 t/year Li 2 CO 3 facility, implementing MPSE is projected to nearly halve contactor CAPEX (from $\$$6.08M to $\$$3.01M) and significantly increase the project's Net Present Value (NPV), derisking new investment and enabling distributed critical-mineral processing configurations. The commercialization of MPSE technology is being spearheaded by Vigsur Dynamics Inc., which has adopted a structured, parallel approach to technical and business development since its formation in January 2026. Following extensive customer discovery and engagement with the Oregon State University accelerator, Vigsur Dynamics is working to establish a business model that transitions from pilot demonstrations to modular hardware sales, ultimately aiming for a "build-own-operate" service strategy. Current technical milestones—including 100 hours of continuous operation, superior energy efficiency, and successful 6-unit modular scale-up— provide a foundation for this transition. Backed by ongoing IP licensing and a growing network of industrial and venture advisors, the company is actively de-risking the platform to replace conventional mixer-settler systems in the critical minerals market.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

RECLAIM: Electrochemical Lithium and Nickel Extraction with Concurrent Carbon Dioxide Mineralization

This project aims to develop technologies toward the production of Li and Ni from CO 2 -reactive minerals and rocks that contain Ca and Mg, while sequestering CO 2 . The technologies include acoustic stimulation and electrolytic proton production, which use electricity to liberate valuable metal ions from the surrounding mineral matrix at sub-boiling temperatures (~20-80°C). Feedstocks include Li/Ni/Ca/Mg-rich igneous and sedimentary rocks and minerals such as holmquistite, hectorite, lateritic Ni ores enriched in Mg-rich serpentine. Other examples of feedstocks that could be used include coarse grained orthocumulate, mine tailings, etc. In the first step, the electrolytic breakdown of water to H + and OH – (as well as O 2 and H 2 ) will be induced by applying an electric potential to simultaneously produce acidity and alkalinity. The solid feedstocks will be dissolved in the acidic anolyte under acoustic stimulation. Solubilized species will then undergo separation using our unique Li + -selective membranes driven by electrodialysis, leading to concentration of Li as soluble lithium silicate, from which Li 2 CO 3 can be derived by reaction with CO 2(g) while supplying cathode alkalinity. Also at the cathode, stepwise electrolytic precipitation of metal hydroxides, including Ni(OH) 2 , Ca(OH) 2 , and Mg(OH) 2 is performed along a cascade reactor in which both the applied potential and pH increase downstream, thereby simultaneously extracting and separating the metals. Finally, exposure of Ca(OH) 2 and Mg(OH) 2 to dilute CO 2 will result in CO 2 uptake in the form of Ca and Mg carbonates. The primary accomplishments include sample procurement and characterization. Progress has been made on precursor identification and mapping, establishing protocols for assessing metal extractability under sonication, and preliminary technoeconomic analysis (TEA) and life cycle analysis (LCA).

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Retrospective on Recent DOE-Funded Studies Concerning the Extraction of Rare Earth Elements & Lithium from Geothermal Brines (Final Report)

Rare earth elements (REE) and lithium are non-toxic metals that are considered critical materials due to their use in electronics, magnets, batteries, and a wide variety of industrial processes important for the economy and military preparedness. Demand for REE and lithium is increasing and these critical materials are imported, so identifying and exploiting domestic sources of REE and lithium is a national priority. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) has been in the forefront of sponsoring research investigating the potential recovery of REE, lithium, and other critical minerals from geothermal brines. It has been proposed that the future of geothermal energy should include “hybrid systems” that combine electricity generation with other revenue-generating activities, such as recovery of valuable and critical minerals, including REE and lithium. Two recent GTO funding opportunities have focused on the recovery of REE and other valuable minerals from geothermal brines. The research supported by the GTO’s mineral recovery program is focused on three areas: resource characterization, technology for the extraction of REE, and technology for the extraction of lithium (Tables 1 and 2). This report is a retrospective study examining the outcome of GTO’s two recent mineral recovery programs (DE-FOA-0001016 in FY 2014 and DE-FOA-0001376 in FY 2016). In this report, the knowledge, technology, and techniques that were developed by researchers funded by GTO are summarized and discussed. Four projects were funded to assess the concentrations and amounts of REE found in geothermal brines and oil field produced waters. The GTO-funded studies compiled publically available data on REE concentrations from brines and produced water from all over the USA. In addition, new samples were collected and characterized from major geothermal and hydrocarbon basins in the Western USA. The studies examined the relationship between lithology and REE concentrations and developed models examining the influence of geology on REE concentrations in produced brines. It was determined that REE are frequently found at higher concentrations in oil field produced water than geothermal brines, but that some geothermal areas had significant REE resources. Significant reservoirs of REE were identified in the Western USA. In some cases, concentrations of REE were more than 1000 times the concentrations found in seawater. Collectively, these studies represent a comprehensive picture of REE resources associated with geothermal and hydrocarbon systems in the USA. The studies did not examine lithium resources, but in some cases, lithium concentration data was collected. Data from these studies are housed in the Geothermal Data Repository (GDR) and represent a significant information resource and it is recommended that these data be further analyzed in a future study. Eight projects were funded to develop new technology for REE extraction from geothermal fluids. These projects investigated sorption as an approach for removal and recovery of REE from geothermal brines. The projects investigated cutting-edge technology for selective sorption of ions from complex solutions, including the application of metal-organic frameworks and biosorbent proteins. The REE sorption studies tested different combinations of metal-binding ligands and solid supports. The most promising metal-binding ligands for REE included phosphonic acid, thiol, and carboxylic acid functional groups. Ligands were attached or incorporated into a wide variety of solid supports. In most cases, attachment was via covalent bonding to organic resins, polymers, or silica-based supports. Most of the REE projects were conducted at a low technology readiness level (TRL) and showed promise, but direct comparison between technologies was not possible based on the available information. It is recommended that testing and reporting be standardized to the extent possible to facilitate comparisons between technologies. Two projects were directed at novel lithium extraction technology. Both projects investigated the use of inorganic sorbents, including manganese oxides. One study also examined the use of metal- ion imprinted polymers as selective ion-exchange resins for the separation of lithium and manganese from brines. Both approaches showed promise for the selective extraction of lithium from brines, including potentially geothermal brines. Results from these GTO studies indicated that selective REE and lithium extraction is possible, but interference from co-occurring solutes, such as calcium, magnesium, or heavy metals, will interfere with process efficiency and negatively impact process economics. Techno-economic analysis conducted as part of the resource and technology studies suggest extraction of REE from geothermal brines is unlikely to be economically viable, especially since non-geothermal produced waters frequently have higher REE concentrations. It is recommended that benchmarks for techno-economic analysis be established to the extent possible for future studies, to facilitate direct comparison of various technologies. Based on the collective results of this program, it appears that hybrid geothermal power would benefit more from recovery of lithium and other metals, rather than REE. It is recommended that future studies be conducted at a higher- TRL and that sorbents be tested against actual geothermal fluid samples. Prior higher-TRL efforts to extract metals from geothermal brines should be further evaluated for lessons learned.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Advanced Manufacturing of Cathode Materials for Lithium-ion Batteries

Original objectives (per the Statement of Project Objectives) centered on developing and translating a continuous pilot process for cathode materials production while targeting (i) a 29% manufacturing cost reduction, (ii) an 82% energy consumption reduction for cathode production, and (iii) a doubling of manufacturing productivity. Planned validation included characterization at appropriate analytical facilities and electrochemical performance evaluation progressing from half-cells to pouch-cell formats, with a pathway to kilogram-scale production of finished cathode materials for representative testing. Scope evolution: During execution, the project team identified that the surfactant-enabled chemistry offered high selectivity for lithium precipitation from brine sources. A formal scope revision shifted the final project year from cathode manufacturing development to direct lithium extraction/lithium recovery, while maintaining the overarching intent of cost reduction and process simplification relevant to the battery supply chain.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Techno-Economic Analysis of Gas-Liquid Contactors for Tritium Extraction from Lead-Lithium

To enable a sustainable fuel cycle, any deuterium-tritium fusion reactor must breed its tritium fuel onsite. Lead-lithium (PbLi), a eutectic metal, is a leading liquid breeder material for tritium generation. One challenge with PbLi blanket technology is the extraction of tritium from the molten eutectic. Three technologies are the focus of worldwide research: the vacuum permeator, the vacuum sieve tray, and the gas-liquid contactor (GLC). The present work offers a methodology for designing, sizing, optimizing, and costing a trickle-bed GLC. Here, we analyzed tritium extraction from PbLi using MELODIE experimental data by applying traditional packed bed mass transfer efficiency models along with supplementary models, like film theory. Our analysis revealed that traditional packed bed mass transfer efficiency models do not fit the MELODIE loop experimental data. Moreover, uncertainty in PbLi solubility resulted in a 325-fold increase in required gas flow rates when comparing identical packing heights. The film theory liquid mass transfer coefficient, Delt-Olujic wettability model, and Reiter tritium solubility values fit the MELODIE data best and were used both in the design and to conduct the economic analysis. Techno-economic analysis of the GLC was performed to evaluate three design sizes, all achieving a minimum extraction efficiency of 90 [%] for a total tritium extraction of 31 [kg/yr].

Fusion Fuel Cycle↗
DOE OSTI2025

Lithium Recovery and Conversion from Wastewater Produced by Recycling of Li-Ion Batteries via Two-Stage Electrodialysis

Electrodialysis (ED) is a membrane separation technique that has been well-established in various applications such as desalination, drinking water production, wastewater treatment, and lithium salt production. A limited number of studies have explored its application in lithium salt production, especially from secondary resources like wastewater. This study investigated a route to recover lithium from wastewater generated from the recycling of end-of-life Li-ion batteries. Two electrodialysis methods, namely standard electrodialysis (ED) and bipolar-membrane electrodialysis (BPED), were combined to concentrate lithium ions and convert them to lithium hydroxide (LiOH), a valuable product that can be fed back into the supply chain for manufacturing Li-ion batteries. Lithium (Li⁺) concentration in recycling wastewater was successfully increased by 58% using ED and converted to LiOH (>96% purity) with a further increase in Li⁺ concentration by 67% using BPED. The Coulombic efficiency of the experiments was 91.0 and 92.2%, with specific energy consumption of 1 and 2.5 kWh/kg, and a production rate of 1.01 and 0.14 kg/h/m 2 for the ED and BPED processes, respectively. In addition, preliminary techno-economic and environmental impact analyses show a significant improvement (GHG emission reduction by 77% and total energy reduction by 53%) by producing LiOH via electrodialysis compared to conventional lithium production via brine extraction. The process was assessed to be beneficial for lithium extraction from secondary resources and to enhance overall battery recycling efforts.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

A Lithium Feedstock Pathway: Coupled Electrochemical Saltwater Extraction and Direct Battery Materials Manufacturing

Lithium (Li) is one of the critical industrial materials and an indispensable component in manufacturing Li batteries. However, Li resource is limited and geographically uneven in earth’s crust and its mining is not sustainable due to the low efficiency and complicated separation and refining processes. In this work, we develop a one-step technology to electrochemically extract Li from low concentration solutions (brines, seawater or used Li-ion batteries) into a form to directly produce commercial battery materials, eliminating the costly Li separation/purification steps. By using this approach, Li was selectively extracted and converted into battery cathodes (e.g., spinel LiMn 2 O 4 and layered LiNi x Mn y Co z O 2 ) through heat treatment. With the importance of Li-ion batteries to the overall decarbonization strategy, the demonstration of a one-step Li-extraction to a ready-to-use material could expand the access to Li resources at a lower cost by eliminating processing steps.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Ion pair extractant selective for LiCl and LiBr

Improved methods for achieving the selective extraction of lithium salts from lithium sources, including rocky ores, salt-lake brines, and end-of-life lithium-ion batteries, could help address projected increases in the demand for lithium. Here, we report an ion pair receptor (2) capable of extracting LiCl and LiBr into an organic receiving phase both from the solid state and from aqueous solutions. Ion pair receptor 2 consists of a calix[4]pyrrole framework, which acts as an anion binding site, linked to a phenanthroline cation binding motif via ether linkages. Receptor 2 binds MgBr 2 and CaCl 2 with high selectivity over the corresponding lithium salts in a nonpolar aprotic solvent. The preference for Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ salts is reversed in polar protic media, allowing receptor 2 to complex LiCl and LiBr with high selectivity and affinity in organic media containing methanol or water. The effectiveness of receptor 2 as an extractant for LiCl and LiBr under liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) conditions was found to be enhanced by the presence of other potentially competitive salts in the aqueous source phase.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Toward Lithium Recovery Using Modular (and Membraneless) Phase Separation and Extraction (MPSE) Technology with Ionic Liquid (IL) Solvents: Effect of Coatings

In this work, a single-channel slope-plate Modular and Membrane-less Phase Separation and Extraction (MPSE) device was fabricated using 3D printing. The slope-plate was designed with an insertable glass slide to enable surface modification with coatings. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) and perfluoropolyether (Zdol) coatings were applied to tailor surface wettability and enhance phase separation. Using a model biphasic system of water and hexadecane, both coatings significantly improved the separation efficiency compared to the uncoated device by promoting selective wetting. Building on these results, lithium extraction from a simulated saline solution was investigated using 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([EMIM][NTf₂]) as the ionic liquid (IL) extractant. The IL effectively extracted Li⁺ from the aqueous phase in bulk extraction, demonstrating its potential for lithium recovery. However, the low interfacial tension between the IL and aqueous phases posed challenges for phase separation. The application of SAM and Zdol coatings effectively mitigated this issue. Overall, integrating tailored surface chemistry with the slope-plate MPSE design shows great promise as an efficient and scalable platform for studying liquid–liquid separation and optimizing ionic liquid–based extraction processes for lithium recovery from saline sources.

3D printing↗
DOE OSTI2025

Implementation of tritium transport in a gas-liquid contactor CFD simulation of tritium extraction from lead-lithium in ANSYS fluent

Modifications to the Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) software ANSYS Fluent were done to quantify and characterize tritium transport in Gas-Liquid Contactors (GLCs). A double-slit, Ergun-like equation was employed for the porous media model, with Ergun coefficients validated with Sulzer’s Sulcol software. Tritium transport from PbLi within the GLC was verified against analytical models. The geometry of the CFD model was based on the MELODIE GLC experiment. The hydrodynamic CFD pressure drop results align well with SulCol estimations and fall between the predictions of the analytical Delft-Olujic and Billet & Schultes models. In terms of mass transfer efficiency, traditional mass transfer models showed a significant deviation from experimental results when using varying values of H solubility in PbLi. A saturation phenomenon occurred when utilizing high solubility values for hydrogen in PbLi. In conclusion, a modified film theory mass transfer coefficient, incorporating either the Delft-Olujic or Billet & Schultes wettability model, yielded CFD-predicted extraction efficiencies that closely matched experimental measurements.

70 - PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗