Results for “LOADS - FUSELAGES” — Page 40

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Challenges Associated with In-Situ Calibration of Load Cells in Force Limited Vibration Testing

The difference in mounting configuration between flight and test can significantly impact the effectiveness of the test in environmental vibration testing. Many tests are performed with large electrodynamic shakers, which utilize interfaces that seek to replicate a fixed base, such as slip tables and head expanders. This fixed base configuration is rarely seen in flight configurations; rather a more realistic configuration would include a flexible mounting structure with its own compliance and dynamics. This causes significant over and under tests in various frequency bands depending on the differences between the test article and fixture dynamics. The traditional way of avoiding these high loads is to limit the acceleration responses at multiple locations on the test article. However, the effectiveness of this approach is highly dependent upon the validity of the test article’s analytical in order to derive accurate acceleration response limit specifications. Also this technique requires limiting the acceleration responses at many locations throughout the test article, which may not be implementable due to such things as access and cleanliness issues An improved environmental vibration testing technique known as force limiting incorporates measurements of the forces between the test article and shaker system interface and limiting them to a specification that more accurately replicates the interface impedance of the structure the test article will be mounted to in flight. In effect this transforms the high mechanical impedance at the test article to shaker interface to more closely match the mechanical impedance of the flight interface, which avoids producing the unrealistically high interface loads. Typically force gauges or load cells are used to measure these interface forces. However, utilizing load cells can present a multitude of challenges depending upon such things as their installation method, geometric layout, and test fixture setup. Regardless, it is extremely important to perform an in-situ calibration of the load cells prior to vibration testing at any significant levels. This paper will discuss the challenges associated with utilizing load cells during the NASA Evolutionary Xenon Thruster – Commercial (NEXT-C) gridded ion thruster proto-flight vibration test performed at the NASA Glenn Research Center’s Structural Dynamics Laboratory.

Kenneth J Pederson↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Challenges Associated with In-Situ Calibration of Load Cells in Force Limited Vibration Testing

The difference in mounting configuration between flight and test can significantly impact the effectiveness of the test in environmental vibration testing. Many tests are performed with large electrodynamic shakers, which utilize interfaces that seek to replicate a fixed base, such as slip tables and head expanders. This fixed base configuration is rarely seen in flight configurations; rather a more realistic configuration would include a flexible mounting structure with its own compliance and dynamics. This causes significant over and under tests in various frequency bands depending on the differences between the test article and fixture dynamics. The traditional way of avoiding these high loads is to limit the acceleration responses at multiple locations on the test article. However, the effectiveness of this approach is highly dependent upon the validity of the test article’s analytical in order to derive accurate acceleration response limit specifications. Also this technique requires limiting the acceleration responses at many locations throughout the test article, which may not be implementable due to such things as access and cleanliness issues An improved environmental vibration testing technique known as force limiting incorporates measurements of the forces between the test article and shaker system interface and limiting them to a specification that more accurately replicates the interface impedance of the structure the test article will be mounted to in flight. In effect this transforms the high mechanical impedance at the test article to shaker interface to more closely match the mechanical impedance of the flight interface, which avoids producing the unrealistically high interface loads. Typically force gauges or load cells are used to measure these interface forces. However, utilizing load cells can present a multitude of challenges depending upon such things as their installation method, geometric layout, and test fixture setup. Regardless, it is extremely important to perform an in-situ calibration of the load cells prior to vibration testing at any significant levels. This paper will discuss the challenges associated with utilizing load cells during the NASA Evolutionary Xenon Thruster – Commercial (NEXT-C) gridded ion thruster proto-flight vibration test performed at the NASA Glenn Research Center’s Structural Dynamics Laboratory.

K. J. Pederson↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Load Schedule Design Improvements for the Calibration of NASA's Semi-span Balances

Improvements of the load schedule design for the calibration of NASA's semi-span balances are discussed. These improvements became possible after a minor hardware change was made to Calspan's Large Load Rig. This change moves normal and axial force load points 12 inches closer to the balance moment center. Resulting data quality improvements are significant because Calspan's Large Load Rig cannot currently apply forces at the balance moment center of a semi-span balance. Now, the supported set of rolling and yawing moment arms is 28, 38, and 48 inches. Consequently, the new load schedule design better supports expected normal and axial force locations on semi-span models that are tested in the NASA Ames 11-ft Transonic Wind Tunnel. In addition, estimates of the primary sensitivities of the normal force, axial force, rolling moment, and yawing moment have become more accurate as the applied normal and axial forces have moved closer to the balance moment center. Fundamental moment arm range requirements and Calspan's hardware updates are discussed. In addition, calibration and check load analysis results of NASA's ARC30K semi-span balance are presented to illustrate benefits of the hardware changes.

wind tunnel test↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Statistically Consistent Dispersions of Line Loads to Uncertain Integrated Forces and Moments

This work presents a method to generate line loads that are consistent with integrated force and moment constraints, while also following the statistical distribution underlying known line load data. The motivation for this method is to address a particular problem that can arise during the pre-flight analysis of an ascent vehicle. That problem is constructing separate databases, for line loads and integrated aerodynamic coefficients, that contain different data and thus different amounts of quantified uncertainty. A dispersed line load method is described and applied to a data set generated by 29 computational fluid dynamics simulations at various angles of attack and sideslip. The statistical similarity of the generated line loads to the known data is confirmed by using the Maximum Mean Discrepancy 2-sample test. The promising results from this novel method are compared against results from applying an existing line load adjustment procedure to the same data set. Finally, potential future avenues of research are briefly discussed.

Aaron C. Burkhead↗

NASA NTRS2024

Loads and Structural Dynamics Requirements for Spaceflight Hardware

The NASA Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate requires Crewed Space Systems (CSS) to meet the intent of a set of Engineering Technical Authority (TA) documents called out in HEOMD-003, Crewed Deep Space Systems Human Rating Certification Requirements and Standards for NASA Missions. For the Loads and Dynamics technical discipline, the document invoked by the HEOMD-003 is JSC 65829, Loads and Structural Dynamics Requirements for Spaceflight Hardware. JSC 65829 was originally developed for the NASA Commercial Crew Program as an implementation of NASA STD-5002, Load Analyses of Spacecraft and Payloads, for that Program. Since that time, tailored alternatives to JSC 65829 have been produced for the Gateway, Human Landing System, and Extravehicular Activity and Human Surface Mobility Programs. Experience with those Programs has shown that the reduced set of less-prescriptive requirements in those tailored documents offers an advantage over the set of requirements in JSC 65829 Rev A and is a better fit for the paradigm of NASA procurement of commercially developed systems for crewed spaceflight. Revision B of JSC 65829 has been constructed to align with those tailored documents. The reduction in the number and specificity of requirements is balanced by a new requirement for hardware developers to create and provide a Loads Control Plan which describes how the approaches used to generate design-to loads and dynamic environments and substantiate dynamic model validity satisfy the requirements herein. The Plan will establish an agreement between the hardware developer and the TA for the loads and dynamics discipline and offer an opportunity for reengagement if the Plan changes during development.

Kenneth Schultz↗

DOE OSTI2020

Codisposal Waste Package Loading Options for DOE SNF and HLW PPT

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is responsible for managing spent nuclear fuel (SNF) that is currently in, or will in the future come into, its possession. DOE must continue to safely store that SNF, transport it to an interim storage site or a repository, and dispose of it. These fuels come from a wide range of reactor types with various cladding materials and enrichments. Many of these reactors, now decommissioned, had unique design features, such as core configuration, fuel element and assembly geometry, moderator and coolant materials, operational characteristics, and neutron spatial and spectral properties, resulting in a large diversity of reactor and fuel designs. Because of the wide variety and conditions of SNF, a robust DOE Standard Canister was proposed that would confine radionuclides and preclude moderator. The DOE Standard Canister had four variations: 3.05-meter (10-foot) or 4.57-meter (15-foot) length, and 45.7-cm (18-inch) or 61.0-cm (24-inch) diameter. For ultimate disposal in the Yucca Mountain Repository, these canisters were to be grouped with 61.0-cm (24-inch) diameter high level waste (HLW) canisters in a 2.13-meter (84-inch) diameter co-disposal waste package. The smaller 45.7-cm (18-inch) diameter DOE Standard Canister could be placed in the middle of five HLW canisters. The larger 61.0-cm (24-inch) diameter DOE Standard Canister would take the place of one of the five HLW canisters on the outer ring in the co-disposal waste package. No DOE Standard Canisters have been loaded. A preliminary evaluation has estimated the number of elements of a fuel type that can fit into the different sizes of the DOE Standard Canister, but no definitive loading configuration has been selected. Changing the loading configuration could impact the number of loadable DOE Standard Canisters and the number of co-disposal waste packages needed for eventual disposition. This paper conveys the ranges of DOE Standard Canisters and HLW canisters that may be produced under certain conditions. It also examines the differences in the estimated number of co-disposal waste packages produced for eventual disposal when using different loading strategies in the DOE Standard Canister for Advanced Test Reactor (ATR), Peach Bottom, and High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) SNF. Changing the loading configurations of ATR, Peach Bottom, and HFIR SNF slightly impacted the number of co-disposal waste packages that may be needed for ultimate disposal. The change in loading configuration was more impactful when a different canister was used, as opposed to varying the number of elements that could fit inside the same size canister. In one case, a reduction of co-disposal waste packages could be achieved by allowing mixing of short HLW canisters with long DOE Standard Canisters. The main conclusion from this analysis is that the ratio between HLW canisters and DOE Standard Canisters will drive the total number of co-disposal waste packages. If too many HLW canisters (i.e., more than five times the number of 18-inch DOE standard canisters) or DOE Standard Canisters are produced, some co-disposal waste packages may not have all positions filled. A co-disposal waste package may be filled with all HLW with no DOE Standard Canister, or a co-disposal waste package could be filled with a single DOE Standard Canister. A ratio that does not closely align to optimum could allow for the design of waste packages that hold just HLW canisters or just DOE SNF canisters.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2022

A Hybrid Reinforcement Learning-MPC Approach for Distribution System Critical Load Restoration: Preprint

This paper proposes a hybrid control approach for distribution system critical load restoration, combining deep reinforcement learning (RL) and model predictive control (MPC) aiming at maximizing total restored load following an extreme event. RL determines a policy for quantifying operating reserve requirements, thereby hedging against uncertainty, while MPC models grid operations incorporating RL policy actions, i.e., the reserve requirement, renewable (wind and solar) power predictions, and load demand forecasts. We formulate the reserve requirement determination problem as a sequential decision making problem based on the Markov Decision Process (MDP) and design an RL learning environment based on the OpenAI Gym framework and MPC. The RL agent reward and MPC objective function aim to maximize and monotonically increase total restored load and minimize load shedding and renewable power curtailment. The RL algorithm is trained off-line using historical forecast of renewable generation and load demand. The method is tested using a modified IEEE 13-bus distribution test feeder containing wind turbine, photovoltaic, microturbine and battery. Case studies demonstrated that the proposed method outperforms other operating reserve determination methods.

distribution system↗

DOE OSTI2022

A Hybrid Reinforcement Learning-MPC Approach for Distribution System Critical Load Restoration

This paper proposes a hybrid control approach for distribution system critical load restoration, combining deep reinforcement learning (RL) and model predictive control (MPC) aiming at maximizing total restored load following an extreme event. RL determines a policy for quantifying operating reserve requirements, thereby hedging against uncertainty, while MPC models grid operations incorporating RL policy actions (i.e., reserve requirements), renewable (wind and solar) power predictions, and load demand forecasts. We formulate the reserve requirement determination problem as a sequential decision-making problem based on the Markov Decision Process (MDP) and design an RL learning environment based on the OpenAI Gym framework and MPC simulation. The RL agent reward and MPC objective function aim to maximize and monotonically increase total restored load and minimize load shedding and renewable power curtailment. The RL algorithm is trained offline using a historical forecast of renewable generation and load demand. The method is tested using a modified IEEE 13-bus distribution test feeder containing wind turbine, photovoltaic, microturbine, and battery. Case studies demonstrated that the proposed method outperforms other policies with static operating reserves.

distribution system↗

DOE OSTI2022

Model predictive control for matrix converter operating in current control mode with load current estimation

A matrix converter system operating in current control mode is provided. The matrix converter includes a switching matrix coupled between a low voltage side and a high voltage side, wherein the matrix converter is coupled at its low voltage side to a generator for receiving an input power including an input current and transforming the input power into an output power at its high voltage side, wherein a load is coupled to the high voltage side. The control system includes a load observer and a model predictive controller (MPC). The load observer is configured to estimate a load current that flows to the load from the high voltage side of the matrix converter as a function of a switching state of the switching matrix, an output voltage output at the high voltage side of the matrix converter, and the input current. The MPC is configured to select the switching state of the switching matrix to meet one or more control objectives defined by minimization of a multi-objective function that tracks the output voltage and the input current using the estimated load current.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2022

A multi-level load shape clustering and disaggregation approach to characterize patterns of energy consumption behavior

This study presents representative electrical load shapes, disaggregated to the end-use level, for over 5000 customer clusters across California’s residential, commercial, industrial and agricultural sectors. We developed a novel, multi-level load shape clustering approach for residential and commercial sectors leveraging interval meter data for over 350,000 California utility customers collected as a part of the Phase 4 California Demand Response (DR) Potential Study. The clustering approach allowed us to identify typical consumption patterns and categorize customers based on their daily load shape displayed throughout the year. For example, we were able to identify customers with particular energy technologies such as electric vehicles and rooftop solar, as well as building occupancy types such as restaurants, grocery stores and even unoccupied buildings, based solely on whole-building interval data. We then combined the load shape-based clusters with other customer information including building type, climate, geographical area, total consumption and low-income status, to create a set of customer clusters based on both demographics and usage patterns. Total cluster electricity demand was then disaggregated into a wide variety of end-uses using weather normalization and other publicly available end-use load shape datasets. The resulting disaggregated cluster load shapes will be released in anonymized form as part of the Phase 4 DR Potential Study. They will have wide-ranging applications in energy research and policy analysis, including estimation of energy efficiency (EE) and DR potential on the end-use level, time-dependent valuation of EE savings, building stock modeling, and developing customer targeting strategies for EE and DR programs.

Murthy, Samanvitha↗

DOE OSTI2023

Pulsed source for driving non-linear current dependent loads

A pulsed current source comprises a power source, a discharge capacitor, and an inductive element. The discharge capacitor is selectively coupled to either of the power source or the inductive element. When coupled to the power source, the discharge capacitor is charged. The inductive element can be connected to a load. The load can have a current-dependent impedance. When the discharge capacitor is coupled to the inductive element, the discharge capacitor discharges through the inductive element and the load. The discharge capacitor and the inductive element are configured so that the current through the load exhibits a substantially linear rise in a linear operational region. The inductive element is configured to saturate during discharge of the capacitor through the load, so that the saturation of the inductive element causes the current through the load to continue to rise in a substantially linear fashion.

Curtis, III, William C.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Co-Disposal Waste Package Loading Options for DOE SNF and HLW - 20331

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is responsible for managing spent nuclear fuel (SNF) that is currently in, or will in the future come into, its possession. DOE must continue to safely store that SNF, transport it to an interim storage site or a repository, and dispose of it. These fuels come from a wide range of reactor types with various cladding materials and enrichments. Many of these reactors, now decommissioned, had unique design features, such as core configuration, fuel element and assembly geometry, moderator and coolant materials, operational characteristics, and neutron spatial and spectral properties, resulting in a large diversity of reactor and fuel designs. Because of the wide variety and conditions of SNF, a robust DOE Standard Canister was proposed that would confine radionuclides and preclude moderator. The DOE Standard Canister had four variations: 3.05-meter (10-foot) or 4.57-meter (15-foot) length, and 45.7-cm (18-inch) or 61.0-cm (24-inch) diameter. For ultimate disposal in the Yucca Mountain Repository, these canisters were to be grouped with 61.0-cm (24-inch) diameter high level waste (HLW) canisters in a 2.13-meter (84-inch) diameter co-disposal waste package. The smaller 45.7-cm (18-inch) diameter DOE Standard Canister could be placed in the middle of five HLW canisters. The larger 61.0-cm (24-inch) diameter DOE Standard Canister would take the place of one of the five HLW canisters on the outer ring in the co-disposal waste package. No DOE Standard Canisters have been loaded. A preliminary evaluation has estimated the number of elements of a fuel type that can fit into the different sizes of the DOE Standard Canister, but no definitive loading configuration has been selected. Changing the loading configuration could impact the number of loadable DOE Standard Canisters and the number of co-disposal waste packages needed for eventual disposition. This paper conveys the ranges of DOE Standard Canisters and HLW canisters that may be produced under certain conditions. It also examines the differences in the estimated number of co-disposal waste packages produced for eventual disposal when using different loading strategies in the DOE Standard Canister for Advanced Test Reactor (ATR), Peach Bottom, and High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) SNF. Changing the loading configurations of ATR, Peach Bottom, and HFIR SNF slightly impacted the number of co-disposal waste packages that may be needed for ultimate disposal. The change in loading configuration was more impactful when a different canister was used, as opposed to varying the number of elements that could fit inside the same size canister. In one case, a reduction of co-disposal waste packages could be achieved by allowing mixing of short HLW canisters with long DOE Standard Canisters. The main conclusion from this analysis is that the ratio between HLW canisters and DOE Standard Canisters will drive the total number of co-disposal waste packages. If too many HLW canisters (i.e., more than five times the number of 18-inch DOE standard canisters) or DOE Standard Canisters are produced, some co-disposal waste packages may not have all positions filled. A co-disposal waste package may be filled with all HLW with no DOE Standard Canister, or a co-disposal waste package could be filled with a single DOE Standard Canister. A ratio that does not closely align to optimum could allow for the design of waste packages that hold just HLW canisters or just DOE SNF canisters. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2025

Fuel Property Effects on Stochastic Preignition Events During Engine Load Transitions

Stochastic preignition (SPI) is an abnormal combustion phenomenon that can cause catastrophic engine damage. There have been several proposed mechanisms of SPI, where a uniform source is still not certain, however, SPI tendencies have been shown to be influenced by engine operating conditions, oil composition, engine age, and fuel chemical and physical properties. Laboratory research and testing for SPI propensity is challenging given the stochastic nature of events, as well as the potential for significant degradation of the engine platform and measuring equipment over time. Thus, SPI specific experiments are generally conducted under either sustained or cyclic patterning of steady-state operating conditions to avoid the influence of transient engine boundary conditions on test parameters of interest (e.g. oil additive package, fuel properties, engine speed/load, etc.). In this work a cyclically varying SPI test sequence involves a 5 min engine warmup period at a low engine load of around 4 bar gross indicated mean effective pressure (IMEPg), followed by a transition to high load (~20 bar IMEPg) at a constant 2000 rev/min engine speed for a total of 25 min. This individual test sequence load schedule is then sequentially repeated 10 times to generate significant statistical data for analysis. This work examines the influence of fuel chemical and physical properties on SPI tendency during the unsteady portion of the 10-cycle sequence (the first 5 min of the high load operation in each sequence of the loading cycle) which has been discarded from previous analyses due to the uncertainty in engine operating and thermal boundary conditions. Results from this analysis suggest an increasing trend in the ratio of SPI events during the unsteady test period relative to the steady test period with increasing fuel Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP), implying differences in uncontrolled ignition source terms, possibly from, fuel wall interactions and retention during the load transition phase of the test.

Splitter, Derek [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000174044047)↗

DOE OSTI2026

Techno-Economic Assessment of Data Center Load Demand Powered by Small Modular Reactors and Distributed Energy Resources

The rapid increase in data center energy demand, driven by AI and large-scale data processing, poses significant challenges to global energy infrastructure. Data centers require substantial and reliable energy for continuous operations and high-performance computing. Current electrical grids face issues such as transmission bottlenecks and aging infrastructure, making it difficult to meet these demands. Integrating inverter-based-resources (IBRs) like solar and wind presents both opportunities and challenges due to their intermittent nature. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) offer a promising solution with their enhanced safety, modularity, reliability, and scalability, providing consistent base load power ideal for data center operations. This study presents a comprehensive techno-economic assessment of powering data center load demand using a combination of SMRs and IBRs with grid-connected and islanded mode. This study utilized Idaho National Laboratory’s (INL) HPC data center hourly load profiles and Xendee microgrid optimization platform to conduct the analysis. In this configuration, SMRs serves as the primary base load power source, consistently providing a steady supply of electricity necessary to meet the minimum load demand of the data center with support from the IBRs. Key performance indicators such as Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE), Net Present Value (NPV) has been calculated to assess the economic feasibility. The findings from this research will underscore the strategic benefits of integrating SMR plant with DERs – particularly for critical infrastructure load such as data centers.

14 - SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Design of a 3.4-MW wind turbine with integrated plasma actuator-based load control

Historically, cost reduction in wind energy has been accomplished by increasing hub heights and rotor diameters to capture more energy per turbine. The growth in rotor and turbine costs with increasing turbine sizes is also driven by the additional structure that must be added to withstand unsteady aerodynamic loads caused by turbulence, gusts, wind shear, misaligned yaw, upwind wakes, and the tower shadow. In this paper, we present a holistic design solution to integrate active load control using a controllable Gurney flap based on plasma actuators. We illustrate the design solution for a land-based 3.4-MW wind turbine rotor. Comparisons to a baseline reference 3.4-MW wind turbine show significant load reduction (15–18% DEL reduction for flap-wise blade root moments), rotor mass reduction (5–8%), and LCOE reduction (1.16–3.11%). To achieve these results, a comprehensive sequential-iterative design procedure is introduced to integrate the controllable Gurney flap into the turbine design and to drive the design solution toward the best LCOE reduction solution. Results are presented for mapping fatigue load reductions into cost reductions. In addition, an evaluation of active load control extended from Region-III to also include Region-II showed a further 34% reduction in DEL.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2023

Adaptive cold-load pickup considerations in 2-stage microgrid unit commitment for enhancing microgrid resilience

In an extended main grid outage spanning multiple days, load shedding serves as a critical mechanism for islanded microgrids to maintain essential power and energy reserves that are indispensable for fulfilling reliability and resiliency mandates. However, using load shedding for such purposes leads to increasing occurrence of cold load pickup (CLPU) events. Here, this study presents an innovative adaptive CLPU model that introduces a method for determining and incorporating parameters related to CLPU power and energy requirements into a two-stage microgrid unit commitment (MGUC) algorithm. In contrast to the traditional fixed-CLPU-curve approach, this model calculates CLPU duration, power, and energy demands by considering outage durations and ambient temperature variations within the MGUC process. By integrating the adaptive CLPU model into the MGUC problem formulation, it allows for the optimal allocation of energy resources throughout the entire scheduling horizon to fulfill the CLPU requirements when scheduling multiple CLPU events. The performance of the enhanced MGUC algorithm considering CLPU needs is assessed using actual load and photovoltaic (PV) data. Simulation results demonstrate significant improvements in dispatch optimality evaluated by the amount of load served, customer comfort, energy storage operation, and adherence to energy schedules. These enhancements collectively contribute to reliable and resilient microgrid operation.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2025

Modeling of Inductive Constant Power Load for Electromagnetic-Transient Simulations-Part II

This paper improves the dynamic constant power (CP) load model that was published in Part I, which is appropriate for electromagnetic-transient (EMT). The improved model conserves all features of its predecessor. For instance, it maintains a fixed power consumption (both active and reactive parts) and a fixed power factor for loads that are predominantly inductive. Furthermore, as the proposed model is a time-dependent system, it is applicable to both sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal case studies. However, the previous model cannot be easily integrated with numeric solvers because it simulated load data over one cycle all together, not sequentially in a time-step manner, due to the limitation involved with the power factor. The improved version, on the contrary, allows the load to be simulated at every time step, which would facilitate its integration with numeric solvers. The model's validity is confirmed by comparing its response with data that is synthesized from constant impedance load, and the result is satisfactory.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2025

2025 Large Load Literature Review

This literature review catalogs more than 90 publications focused on large loads, and groups the documents and resources thematically into 12 categories, (listed below). The 2026 Large Load Literature Review and Data Sources summary reports are available here: https://emp.lbl.gov/publications/2026-large-load-literature-review -Load forecasting -Data sources -Reliability and resource adequacy -Large load interconnection -Demand flexibility -Generation -Co-location -Data center location/infrastructure -Large load tariffs -Policy options -Maps and tools -Design and operations

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗