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At least 721 records · Page 40
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Strengthening of Calcite Assemblages Through Chemical Complexation Reactions

Abstract Utilization of subsurface reservoirs, including fluid extraction/injection, can induce stress changes and modify in‐situ chemical equilibrium causing subcritical fracturing and deformation. Here, we show that chemical complexation reactions at the newly created fracture surfaces within the crack tip limit fracturing during consolidation of granular calcite assemblages. Previously, we showed that analogous chemical complexation reactions can increase in‐situ fracture toughness in pre‐fractured single crystal calcite. To test the chemical complexation effect under subsurface conditions, we consolidated samples under increasing hydrostatic pressure to induce widespread intergranular fracturing in the presence of fluid containing common anions. Measured consolidation, acoustic emissions, and microfracturing demonstrate that deformation correlates with complexation affinity for calcium in calcite and aqueous anions. We observed that deformation is lowest in the presence of strongly complexing anions (e.g., sulphate), provided sufficient anion diffusion rates. This understanding is important for predicting reservoir effective strength in the presence of complex aqueous fluids.

Choens, R. C.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Development of a Method for Shape Optimization for a Gas Turbine Fuel Injector Design Using Metal-Additive Manufacturing

Adjoint shape optimization has enabled physics-based optimal designs for aerodynamic surfaces. Additive manufacturing (AM) makes it possible to manufacture complex shapes. However, there has been a gap between optimal and manufacturable surfaces due to the inherent limitations of commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes to implement geometric constraints during adjoint computation. In such cases, the design sensitivities are exported and used to perform constrained shape modifications using parametric information stored in computer aided design (CAD) files to satisfy manufacturability constraints. However, modifying the design using adjoint methods in CFD solvers and performing constrained shape modification in CAD can lead to inconsistencies due to different shape parameterization schemes. This paper describes a method to enable the simultaneous optimization of the fluid domain and impose AM manufacturability constraints, resolving one of the key issues of geometry definition for isogeometric analysis. Similar to a grid convergence study, the proposed method verifies the consistencies between shape parameterization techniques present within commercial CAD and CFD software during mesh movement as a part of the adjoint shape optimization routine. By identifying the appropriate parameters essential to a shape optimization study, the error metric between the different parameterization techniques converges to demonstrate sufficient consistencies for justifiable exchange of data between CAD and CFD. For the identified shape optimization parameters, the error metric to measure the deviation between the two parameterization schemes lies within the AM laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process tolerance. Additionally, comparison for subsequent objective function calculations between iterations of the optimization loop showed acceptable differences within 1% variation between the modified geometries obtained using the two parameterization schemes. This method provides justification for the use of multiphysics guided adjoint design sensitivities computed in CFD software to perform shape modifications in CAD to incorporate AM manufacturability constraints during the shape optimization loop such that optimal designs are also additively manufacturable.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Structural chemistry of penta- and hexanitrato thorium($\tiny{IV}$) complexes isolated using N–H donors

In this study, a series of fifteen tetravalent thorium phases were prepared. The compounds were isolated from acidic aqueous nitrate solutions using protonated nitrogen heterocycles of varying hydrogen-bond donation strength. Structural analysis via single crystal X-ray diffraction showed that the structures are built from pentanitrato, [Th(NO 3 ) 5 (H 2 O) 2 ] 1- , and hexanitrato, [Th(NO 3 ) 6 ] 2- , molecular units, with the latter being far more prevalent in the solid state. The vibrational properties of the compounds were examined using Raman and IR spectroscopy; the spectra are dominated by stretches characteristic of nitrate and the organic ions. The relative energetics of nitrate complexation was examined using electronic structure theory. These results confirmed that there are clear thermodynamic sinks for the penta- and hexanitrato structural units that were observed experimentally. Additionally, electrostatic surface potentials (ESPs) were calculated in an effort to better understand the counterion stabilization of the complexes. The ESP surfaces showed that the position of the water and nitrate molecules and the coordination geometry of the metal complex had a clear effect on the polarizability of the two structural motifs. Despite limited speciation of the Th–nitrate structural units, the compounds exhibit rich supramolecular chemistry resulting from hydrogen bonding of the Th complexes with the organic N–H donors and π–π stacking interactions from the protonated N-heterocycles.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Microstructure and corrosion of CrFeMnV multi-principal element alloy

In this study, a multi-principal element alloy consisting of equiatomic concentrations of Cr, Fe, Mn, and V was produced by arc melting. The combination of X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy indicated that the CrFeMnV MPEA was comprised of a BCC matrix with a dispersion of a secondary phase. Cyclic potentiodynamic polarization tests in 0.6M NaCl revealed high corrosion resistance – superior to that of stainless steel 304L, as evident from high breakdown and repassivation potentials. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry provided insight into the formed multi-layer surface film after constant immersion and potentiostatic conditioning.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Crewmember microbiome may influence microbial composition of ISS habitable surfaces

The International Space Station (ISS) is a complex built environment physically isolated from Earth. Assessing the interplay between the microbial community of the ISS and its crew is important for preventing biomedical and structural complications for long term human spaceflight missions. In this study, we describe one crewmember’s microbial profile from body swabs of mouth, nose, ear, skin and saliva that were collected at eight different time points pre-, during and post-flight. Additionally, environmental surface samples from eight different habitable locations in the ISS were collected from two flights. Environmental samples from one flight were collected by the crewmember and samples from the next flight were collected after the crewmember departed. The microbial composition in both environment and crewmember samples was measured using shotgun metagenomic sequencing and processed using the Livermore Metagenomics Analysis Toolkit. Ordination of sample to sample distances showed that of the eight crew body sites analyzed, skin, nostril, and ear samples are more similar in microbial composition to the ISS surfaces than mouth and saliva samples; and that the microbial composition of the crewmember’s skin samples are more closely related to the ISS surface samples collected by the crewmember on the same flight than ISS surface samples collected by other crewmembers on different flights. In these collections, species alpha diversity in saliva samples appears to decrease during flight and rebound after returning to Earth. This is the first study to compare the ISS microbiome to a crewmember’s microbiome via shotgun metagenomic sequencing. We observed that the microbiome of the surfaces inside the ISS resemble those of the crew’s skin. These data support future crew and ISS microbial surveillance efforts and the design of preventive measures to maintain crew habitat onboard spacecraft destined for long term space travel.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Revealing complex subsurface dynamics with continuous seismic monitoring: Observations using distributed acoustic sensing and surface orbital vibrators during hydraulic fracturing

Understanding hydraulic fracturing is crucial to improving the stimulation of unconventional reservoirs and increasing fluid production. This study develops a novel seismic monitoring technology using distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) and surface orbital vibrators (SOV) to capture fracture seismic response and mechanical properties at high temporal intervals. We analyze continuous time-lapse vertical seismic profiling (VSP) data acquired every hour during the first nine days of treatment of an unconventional reservoir in the Austin Chalk/Eagle Field Laboratory. The VSP data contain clear seismic signals scattered from the activated fractures. The spatiotemporal changes of the fracture reflectivity revealed by the SOV/DAS data correlate well with the observations of fracture locations inferred from low-frequency DAS data. These results capture the fracture opening and closure processes, as well as highlight potential prestage activations of the fractures due to hydraulic connectivity with preexisting fracture systems. Therefore, analysis of the presented data set provides a unique opportunity to understand fracture initiation and subsequent evolution, not only in the context of unconventional resources but also in enhanced geothermal systems.

Correa, Julia↗
DOE OSTI2018

Bulk and Surface Aqueous Speciation of Calcite: Implications for Low-Salinity Waterflooding of Carbonate Reservoirs

Low-salinity waterflooding (LSW) is ineffective when reservoir rock is strongly water-wet or when crude oil is not asphaltenic. Success of LSW relies heavily on the ability of injected brine to alter surface chemistry of reservoir crude-oil brine/rock (COBR) interfaces. Implementation of LSW in carbonate reservoirs is especially challenging because of high reservoir-brine salinity and, more importantly, because of high reactivity of the rock minerals. Both features complicate understanding of the COBR surface chemistries pertinent to successful LSW. Here, we tackle the complex physicochemical processes in chemically active carbonates flooded with diluted brine that is saturated with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and possibly supplemented with additional ionic species, such as sulfates or phosphates. When waterflooding carbonate reservoirs, rock equilibrates with the injected brine over short distances. Injected-brine ion speciation is shifted substantially in the presence of reactive carbonate rock. Our new calculations demonstrate that rock-equilibrated aqueous pH is slightly alkaline quite independent of injected-brine pH. We establish, for the first time, that CO 2 content of a carbonate reservoir, originating from CO 2 -rich crude oil and gas, plays a dominant role in setting aqueous pH and rock-surface speciation. A simple ion-complexing model predicts the calcite-surface charge as a function of composition of reservoir brine. The surface charge of calcite may be positive or negative, depending on speciation of reservoir brine in contact with the calcite. There is no single point of zero charge; all dissolved aqueous species are charge determining. Rock-equilibrated aqueous composition controls the calcite-surface ion-exchange behavior, not the injected-brine composition. At high ionic strength, the electrical double layer collapses and is no longer diffuse. All surface charges are located directly in the inner and outer Helmholtz planes. Our evaluation of calcite bulk and surface equilibria draws several important inferences about the proposed LSW oil-recovery mechanisms. Diffuse double-layer expansion (DLE) is impossible for brine ionic strength greater than 0.1 molar. Because of rapid rock/brine equilibration, the dissolution mechanism for releasing adhered oil is eliminated. Also, fines mobilization and concomitant oil release cannot occur because there are few loose fines and clays in a majority of carbonates. LSW cannot be a low-interfacial-tension alkaline flood because carbonate dissolution exhausts all injected base near the wellbore and lowers pH to that set by the rock and by formation CO 2 . Finally, in spite of diffuse double-layer collapse in carbonate reservoirs, surface ion-exchange oil release remains feasible, but unproved.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2020

Electronic band contraction induced low temperature methane activation on metal alloys

The catalytic conversion of methane under mild conditions is an appealing approach to selectively produce value-added products from natural gas. Catalysts which can chemisorb methane can potentially overcome challenges associated with its high stability and achieve facile activation. Although transition metals can activate C–H bonds, chemisorption and low-temperature conversion remain elusive on these surfaces. The broad electronic bands of metals can only weakly interact with the methane orbitals, in contrast to specific transition metal oxide and supported metal cluster surfaces which are now recognized to form methane σ-complexes. Here, we report methane chemisorption can, remarkably, occur on metal surfaces via electronic band contraction and localization from metal alloying. From a broad screening including single atom and intermetallic alloys in various substrates, we find early transition metals as promising metal solutes for methane chemisorption and low-temperature activation. These findings demonstrate a combinatorial diversity of possible candidates in earth abundant metal alloys with this attractive catalytic behavior.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

One-Dimensional Electron Gas Confined along Nanowrinkles in a Unidirectional Charge Density Wave Material

Two-dimensional (2D) materials inherently exhibit instabilities. Structurally, this may lead to modulations along the third dimension, e.g., wrinkles. Electronically, 2D instabilities can manifest themselves as charge density waves (CDWs). Although wrinkles can alter anisotropic electronic structures susceptible to forming CDWs, less is known about their impact on broken-symmetry ground states. Here, in this study, using scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy, we investigate the CDW states on the wrinkled surface of DyTe 3 . We identify elongated, parallel nanoscale wrinkles stabilized by ribbon-shaped defects. Interestingly, the CDW order persists across the nanowrinkles with a gradual phase shift but is locally suppressed near the defects, where phase windings occur. In addition, these defects induce quantum confinement effects along the nanowrinkles, indicating the presence of one-dimensional metallic states with hole- like dispersion, while angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy identifies a gap along the wrinkle direction. We ascribe this discrepancy to strain-induced changes in the Fermi surface, which lead to the closure of the gap at the sites of the nanowrinkles. Taken together, our results underscore the complex interplay between structural features and Fermi surface topology, allowing for the deliberate manipulation of quantum states in strongly correlated systems via local crystal deformations.

nanowrinkles↗
DOE OSTI2020

Autonomous Tools for Attack Surface Reduction

The electric power grid is a complex critical infrastructure that forms the lifeline of modern society, and its secure and reliable operation is of paramount importance to national security and economic well being. However, recent findings documented in authoritative sources indicate the threat of cyber-based attacks growing in numbers and sophistication. However, securing the grid against stealthy cyber attacks is a challenging task due to legacy nature of the infrastructure coupled with dynamic nature of threat landscape and ever growing sophistication of the adversaries. Additionally, the grid’s attack surface continues to grow with the increased dependence on digital communications and control that now extends to each consumer through smart meters and distributed energy resources. Unfortunately, this expansive surface increases the grid’s vulnerability and further exposes critical control systems in both substations and control centers. To respond to this emerging need, we had successfully assembled an interdisciplinary team with academic- industry partnership to successfully conduct research, development, evaluation, demonstration, and commercialization of attack surface reduction tools, whose goal is to significantly reduce the cyber attack surface in the North American power grid. Our proposed project was a synergistic collaborative effort leveraging the synergistic expertise of the team members across power systems, cyber security and CPS security, testbeds, field deployments and demonstration, and successful commercialization. The team consisted of leading experts from two major universities – Iowa State University, Washington State University – complemented by reputed researchers from two DOE national laboratories – Pacific Northwest National Lab, and Argonne National Lab, one major utility vendor GE Global Research, and one utility partner – Cedar Falls Utilities (CFU). The team members have proven track record of successful academic-industry collaboration in interdisciplinary R&D projects, and bring onboard some of the best state-of-the-art testbed resources, industry-grade SCADA/EMS/DMS environment for experimentation and field demonstration.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2022

New insights into Mn 2+ and Mg 2+ inhibition of calcite growth

Impurity ion and isotope partitioning into carbonate minerals provide a window into the molecular processes occurring at the fluid-mineral interface during crystal growth. Here, we employ calcium isotope fractionation together with process-based modeling to elucidate the mechanisms by which two divalent cations with starkly contrasting compatibility, magnesium and manganese, inhibit calcite growth and incorporate into the mineral lattice. Calcite growth inhibition by Mg 2+ is log-linear and K Mg is on the order of 0.02–0.03 throughout the range of {Mg 2+ }/{Ca 2+ } studied here (0.01–2.6). Mn 2+ exhibits much stronger log-linear growth rate inhibition at low Mn 2+ concentrations (fluid {Mn 2+ }/{Ca 2+ } = 0.001–0.02). Mn 2+ is readily incorporated into the calcite lattice to form a calcite-rhodochrosite solid solution, with large partition coefficients (K Mn 4.6–15.6) inversely correlated to growth rate. For both Mn 2+ and Mg 2+ , calcium isotope fractionation is found to be invariant with {Me 2+ }/{Ca 2+ } despite more than an order of magnitude decline in growth rate. This invariant Δ 44/40 Ca suggests that the presence of Mn 2 + or Mg 2+ does not significantly change the relative rates of Ca 2+ attachment and detachment at kink sites during growth, indicative of a dominantly kink blocking inhibition mechanism. Because the partitioning behavior dictates that Mn 2+ must attach to the surface significantly faster than Ca 2+ , attachment of Mn 2+ is likely to be as a non-monomer species such as an ion pair or possibly a larger polynuclear cluster. We propose that calcite growth rate inhibition by Mn is determined by the kinetics of carbonate attachment at Mn-occupied kink sites, potentially due to slow re-orientation kinetics of carbonate ions that have formed an inner-sphere complex with Mn 2+ at the surface but must reorient to incorporate into the lattice. We demonstrate that patterns in Mg 2+ partitioning and inhibition behavior are broadly consistent with growth inhibition driven by slow Mg 2+ -aquo complex dehydration relative to Ca 2+ but argue that this mechanism likely represents one endmember scenario, seen in Mg-calcite growth at low supersaturations and net precipitation rates. During growth at faster net precipitation rates, some portion of Mg 2+ is likely incorporated as a partially hydrated or otherwise complexed species, but calcite growth remains significantly inhibited by the kinetics of CO 3 2- attachment at Mg 2+ kink sites. These findings suggest a hybrid classical/nonclassical growth mechanism whereby Ca 2+ incorporates largely as a free ion at kink sites while Mn 2+ and some portion of Mg 2+ are incorporated via non-monomer attachment. This pattern may be generalizable; trace constituent cations with aquo-complex desolvation rates significantly slower than the mineral growth rate preferentially incorporate as a non-monomer species during otherwise classical crystal growth.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Electrocatalytic CO 2 Reduction with a Ruthenium Catalyst in Solution and on Nanocrystalline TiO 2

A Ru II complex [Ru(PO 3 Et 2 -ph-tpy)(6-mbpy)(NCCH 3 )] 2+ [PO 3 Et 2 -ph-tpy=diethyl(4-[(2,2':6',2"-terpyridin)-4'-yl]phenyl)phosphonate; 6-mbpy=6-methyl-2,2'-bipyridine] is explored as a molecular catalyst for electrocatalytic CO 2 reduction in both a homogeneous solution and, as a phosphonated derivative, on nanocrystalline-TiO 2 surfaces. In CH 3 CN, the complex acts as a selective electrocatalyst for reduction of CO 2 to CO at a low overpotential of 340 mV but with a limited turnover number (TON). An enhancement in reactivity was observed by immobilizing the phosphonated derivative of the catalyst on a nanocrystalline-TiO 2 electrode surface, with the catalyst surface protected by a thin overlayer of NiO. The surface-functionalized electrode was characterized by X-ray photoelectron and diffuse reflectance spectroscopies (XPS and DRS). Electrocatalytic reduction of CO 2 to CO occurred at -1.65 V versus Fc +/0 with a TON of 237 per catalyst site during 4 h of electrocatalysis. Post-catalysis XPS measurements reveal that the molecular structure of the catalyst is retained on TiO 2 after the long-term electrocatalysis.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2019

Rate/Concentration Kinetic Petals: A Transient Method to Examine the Interplay of Surface Reaction Processes

Transient pulse response experiments are used to construct rate/concentration (RC) kinetic dependencies—RC petals—and provide a new method to distinguish the timing and interplay of adsorption, surface reaction, and product formation on complex (industrial) materials. A petal shape arises as the dynamic “reaction-diffusion” experiment forces the concentration and reaction rate to return to zero. In contrast to the typical steady-state “Langmuir-type” RC dependence, RC petals have two branches, which arise as a result of decoupled gas and surface concentrations in the non-steady-state regime. To demonstrate this approach, the characteristics of petal shapes using ammonia decomposition as a probe reaction are presented. Ammonia, hydrogen, and nitrogen transformation rates are compared on three simple materials: Fe, Co, and a bimetallic CoFe preparation when ammonia is pulsed at 550°C in a low-pressure diffusion reactor. All materials demonstrate a two-branch kinetic RC dependence for ammonia adsorption, and rate constants are quantified in the low-coverage regime. We found that H 2 and N 2 product formation was dependent on the concentration of surface intermediates for all materials with one exception: for Co, an additional fast hydrogen generation process was observed; the rate of which coincided with ammonia adsorption. Nitrogen generation was only significant for CoFe and Co and on the CoFe catalyst, a self-inhibition property was observed. A method for estimating the number of active sites based on the RC petals is presented and was applied to the Fe and CoFe samples. The surface coverage and rate of formation/conversion of surface intermediates are interpreted from the examination of shape characteristics of the RC petals for each material.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Imaging surface topography with coherent x-ray reflectivity: Theory, kinematics, and simulations

A theoretical formalism is described for understanding coherent x-ray reflectivity (CXR) from the surface of a semi-infinite crystal having a variable surface topography, described by the height profile ℎ(𝑥,𝑦). The surface topography is imaged as a complex “effective density,” obtained from the phasing and inversion of the coherent x-ray reflectivity data, measured through a rocking scan centered at a vertical momentum transfer 𝑄$^{0}_{𝑧}$ and a vertical range Δ⁢𝑄 𝑧 . The formalism predicts that the effective density has an amplitude with a maximum located at the surface height for each position within the surface plane. The phase of the effective density has a lateral variation that is controlled by the surface height and a vertical variation that reflects a combination of the interfacial structure and specific choice of measurement conditions. This understanding enables direct observation of nanometer-scale interfacial topography, i.e., ℎ⁡(𝑥,𝑦)⁢𝑐 𝑠 (where 𝑐 𝑠 is the vertical substrate lattice parameter) with Å-scale sensitivity to surface height. Numerical simulations illustrate and confirm the theoretical results. These results show how the interpretation of the interfacial density phase obtained by CXR data inversion (i.e., surface topography with respect to a flat surface) is conceptually similar to that previously known for Bragg coherent diffraction imaging (BCDI) measurements of isolated nanoparticles (i.e., lattice displacements with respect to an ideal crystal lattice). This suggests that CXR can be thought of as a form of dark field imaging with respect to the bright field BCDI approach. An implication of these results is that interfacial imaging may bypass some of the significant challenges associated with BCDI imaging of multiple particles having different orientations.

X-ray imaging↗
DOE OSTI2022

On-Surface Single-Molecule Identification of Mass-Selected Cyclodextrin-Supported Polyoxovanadates for Multistate Resistive-Switching Memory Applications

Polyoxovanadate anions immobilized on conducting substrates are promising candidates for molecule-based memory technologies. However, strong electronic interactions with the substrate and the formation of larger agglomerates remain bottlenecks on the way to their technical application. We demonstrate that ion soft-landing of mass selected cyclodextrin- functionalized hexavanadates enables to deposit these host-guest complexes as single memory units on surfaces without their quaternary ammonium countercations from solution. The cyclodextrin provides a stabilizing “shell” for the dianions. Further, multistate switching evidenced by the change in molecular resistance has been detected using scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy and attributed to reduction of individual vanadium (+V) centers.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2017

High capacity Li-ion battery anodes: Impact of crystallite size, surface chemistry and PEG-coating

Battery electrodes are complex mesoscale systems comprised of an active material, conductive agent, current collector, and polymeric binder. Previous work showed that introduction of poly [3-(potassium-4-butanoate) thiophene] (PPBT) as a binder component coupled with a polyethylene glycol (PEG) surface coating on magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) nanoparticles enhanced electron and ion transport in the high capacity anode system. Here, the impact of Fe 3 O 4 crystallite size (10 nm vs. 20 nm) and surface chemistry were explored to evaluate their effects on interfacial interactions within the composite PEG/PPBT based electrodes and resultant battery performance. The Fe 3 O 4 synthesis methods inevitably lead to differences in surface chemistry. For instance, the Fe 3 O 4 particles synthesized using ammonium hydroxide appeared more dispersed, and afforded improved rate capability performance. Notably, chemical interactions between the active nanoparticles and PPBT binder were only seen with particles synthesized using triethylamine. Capacity retention and cycling performance were unaffected. Thus, this study provides fundamental insights into the significant impact of active material synthesis on the design and fabrication of composite battery electrodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Exploring transport-enabled gates with integrated optical addressing to demonstrate high fidelity control of trapped ion qubits in a scalable quantum computer

In recent years, experiments involving micofabricated surface ion traps have grown in complexity, and as this complexity grows, a common design has emerged in the form of quantum charge-coupled device architecture. This architecture, already utilized on multiple systems, supports multiple zones on a device for areas such as memory or computation. The shutting process between these zones is a process often seen to be minimized. An additional component to scalable surface trapped-ion experiments includes some form of integrated photonics, as free space lasers have difficulty scaling to many ions. Here, we discuss recent results in utilizing the shuttling process with integrated photonics to perform a specific type of gate, as well as demonstrating state preparation. Furthermore, we show that these gates can be utilized as a type of optical modulator as the Doppler shift that occurs during shuttling will make the light seen by shuttled ions different than that seen by stationary ions. Furthermore, we show that the shuttling operation can be utilized as an optical modulator, where the Doppler shift changes the frequency from that of a stationary ion.

42 ENGINEERING↗