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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Pragmatic Stress Prediction on Additively Manufactured Coupons

Prediction of residual stresses from process parameters for additively manufactured large metal parts is computationally expensive. NASA is currently developing meter-scale parts with direct energy deposition. Practically, the predictive computational methods need to efficiently scale-up to meter-scale parts. Coupled thermal-mechanical multi-physics simulations have been developed with the pragmatic method using ABAQUS, COMSOL Multiphysics, ALE3D software. The residual stresses are a result of the manufacturing process which creates thermal cycling of the build layers. The pragmatic method uses lumped thermal layers for stress predictions to reduce computational costs. The stress predictions as well as deformations of the different codes are compared with each other and with ANSYS Additive using identical material models, boundary and initial conditions. The codes were used to simulate three different geometries: a thin wall, hollow cylinder and twin-cantilever part. The coupon parts were then manufactured with Inconel-625. The residual stresses in these parts were measured using X-ray diffraction as well as neutron beam diffraction at NIST. The stress measurements for the two technologies are compared. The pragmatic stress prediction method enabled predictions of the multi-centimeter scale parts using desktop computer workstations in only a few hours for each coupon. The results of the simulated stress predictions compared favorably with the measured stresses even though thermally lumped layers were employed. Finally, a two-meter scale nozzle was simulated using ANSYS Additive. The simulations were used to examine the build orientation trade-space with respect to resulting geometric deformation. The predicted deformations were compared to measurements of an actual subscale part manufactured with direct energy deposition.

pragmatic method↗
NASA NTRS2006

20V, 40 Ah Lithium Ion Polymer Battery for the Spacesuit

Objective: Consider a new battery design for EMU. Results: a) Electrovaya s aerospace cell production line is improving, but must further improve to achieve acceptable reliability; b) Completed functional, vibration, and thermal cycling of LIB; c) So far, electrical safety tests have produced good results; d) Completed functional, vibration, thermal cycling, power quality and EMI of LIB Charger; e) Completed CDR on 9/23/04; and f) Manufacturing Readiness Review for flight cell/battery production scheduled for Dec 04.

Darcy, Eric↗
DOE OSTI2024

Cross-scale interaction between microturbulence and meso-scale reversed shear Alfvén eigenmodes in DIII-D plasmas

Abstract This paper reports global nonlinear gyrokinetic simulations that couple meso-scale reversed shear Alfvén eigenmodes (RSAEs) driven by energetic particles (EPs) and ion temperature gradient (ITG) microturbulence driven by thermal plasma, using equilibrium and profiles from DIII-D discharge #159243. In simulations focusing only on the ITG, electrostatic ITG drives a huge thermal ion heat transport, which is reduced by a factor of 10 to a level close to the experimental value in electromagnetic simulation due to finite β effect. In the simulations coupling the RSAE and ITG, ITG can scatter the resonant EP nonlinearly trapped by the RSAE and damp the zonal flows generated by the RSAE. The regulation of the RSAE by the ITG greatly reduces the initial saturation amplitude of the RSAE but increases the RSAE amplitude and associated EP transport to experimental levels in the quasi-steady state. The RSAE effects on the ITG, specifically the stronger zonal flows generated by the RSAE and the RSAE frequency modulation of the ITG-induced thermal ion heat transport, in turn, leads to a reduction of the thermal ion heat transport by more than a factor of 2 . For a stronger background ITG, the regulation of the RSAE by the ITG is stronger, while the RSAE effects on the ITG are weaker. This work highlights the importance of cross-scale coupling in the dynamics of the AE turbulence and EP transport.

Physics↗
DOE OSTI2025

A molecular conveyor belt-associated protein controls the rotational direction of the bacterial type 9 secretion system

ABSTRACT Many bacteria utilize the type 9 secretion system (T9SS) for gliding motility, surface colonization, and pathogenesis. This dual-function motor supports both gliding motility and protein secretion, where rotation of the T9SS plays a central role. Fueled by the energy of the stored proton motive force and transmitted through the torque of membrane-anchored stator units, the rotary T9SS propels an adhesin-coated conveyor belt along the bacterial outer membrane like a molecular snowmobile, thereby enabling gliding motion. However, the mechanisms controlling the rotational direction and gliding motility of T9SS remain elusive. Shedding light on this mechanism, we find that in the gliding bacteriumFlavobacterium johnsoniae, deletion of the C-terminus of the conveyor belt-associated protein GldJ controls and, in fact, reverses the rotational direction of T9SS from counterclockwise (CCW) to clockwise (CW). This suggests that the interface between the conveyor belt-associated protein GldJ and the T9SS ring protein GldK plays an important role in controlling the directionality of T9SS, potentially by modulating its interaction with the stator complex GldLM, which drives motor rotation. Combined with MD simulation of the T9SS stator units GldLM, we suggest a “tri-component gearset” model where GldJ controls the rotational direction of its driver, the T9SS, thus providing adaptive sensory feedback to influence the motility of the gliding bacterium. IMPORTANCE The type 9 secretion system (T9SS) is fundamental to bacterial gliding motility, pathogenesis, and surface colonization. Our findings reveal that the C-terminal region of the conveyor belt-associated protein GldJ functions as a molecular switch which is capable of reversing the rotational direction of T9SS. Through the coordinated actions of the T9SS stator units (akin to a driving motor), the GldK ring (the gear that converts rotational energy into linear movement), and GldJ, this machinery forms a smart conveyor belt system reminiscent of flexible or cognitive mechanical conveyors. Such advanced conveyors can alter their direction to adapt to shifting demands. Here, we show that the bacterial T9SS similarly adjusts its rotational bias based on feedback from the conveyor belt-associated protein GldJ. This dual-role feedback mechanism underscores an evolved, controllable biological snowmobile, offering new avenues for studying how bacteria fine-tune motility in dynamic environments.

Microbiology↗
NASA NTRS1990

Gaseous Optical Contamination of the Spacecraft Environment: A Review

Interactions between the ambient atmosphere and orbiting spacecraft, sounding rockets, and suborbital vehicles, and with their effluents, give rise to optical (extreme UV to LWIR) foreground radiation which constitutes noise that raises the detection threshold for terrestrial and celestial radiations, as well as military targets. Researchers review the current information on the on-orbit optical contamination. Its source species are created in interaction processes that can be grouped into three categories: (1) Reactions in the gas phase between the ambient atmosphere and desorbates and exhaust; (2) Reactions catalyzed by exposed ram surfaces, which occur spontaneously even in the absence of active material releases from the vehicles; and (3) Erosive excitative reactions with exposed bulk (organic) materials, which have recently been identified in the laboratory though not as yet observed on spacecraft. Researchers also assess the effect of optical pumping by earthshine and sunlight of both reaction products and effluents.

Tran, N. H.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Pinned in Microgravity: How Colloidal Suspensions Inhibit Droplet Motion

Understanding the fundamental behavior of colloidal fluids in microgravity is critical for advancing material science, manufacturing, and biological processes. In this study we investigate the dynamics of a droplet containing colloidal suspension when ejected in short term microgravity. These conditions are generated using a 2.2 second drop tower. A custom droplet generator was designed to produce consistent size-controlled droplets containing passive colloidal particles. The particles are suspended in water and subsequently ejected out of a hydrophobic wedge under microgravity conditions, where the droplet ejection time can be predicted [Torres & Weislogel, 2021]. The ejection times will be compared with de-ionized water ejected from the same system to investigate the effects of change in density and surface tension caused by the colloids. Successful passive colloidal ejection will lay the foundation for active colloid research in the future.

colloids↗
DOE OSTI2026

A strong and ductile Super Kovar alloy via fully coherent nanoprecipitates

Emerging high-precision technologies demand materials with exceptional dimensional stability and mechanical robustness, as even microscopic thermomechanical deformation can cause functional failure. However, a fundamental trilemma exists: High strength, ductility, and low thermal expansion are mutually exclusive, as strengthening-induced lattice distortions compromise the spin-lattice coupling, which is essential for low thermal expansion. Here, we overcome this trilemma by designing “Super Kovar,” an Fe-Ni-Co-Al-Ta alloy, featuring fully coherent nanoprecipitates. It unifies a 1.0-gigapascal ultimate tensile strength and ∼39% elongation with a Kovar-grade thermal expansion of 3.81 × 10−6 K−1 (100 to 410 K). The key is a dense dispersion of L12 nanoprecipitates that form an almost strain-free coherent interface with the ferromagnetic matrix. Beyond providing precipitation strengthening, these coherent interfaces suppress intrinsic phonons of nanoprecipitates via elastic coupling while avoiding magnetic domain pinning to preserve the Invar effect of the matrix. This reduces the thermal expansion of the precipitates by 56% and achieves a fourfold enhancement in the strength-ductility product, establishing a paradigm for dimensionally stable, ultrastrong alloys.

Yu, Chengyi [University of Science and Technology ↗
DOE OSTI2026

Evaluating alternative steam generation pathways in the food industry

Steam generation in the food sector requires substantial energy and cost expenditures, requiring nearly half of its energy intake. Here, we used life cycle assessment and life cycle cost assessment to investigate the cost and energy impacts of steam generating alternatives: NG, biomass and hydrogen boilers and grid-supplied and self-generated electric steam generation systems (electric boilers, renewable thermal energy storage and industrial heat pumps). The analysis starts with a set of average U.S. conditions, where biomass boilers are the most cost-competitive alternative to NG. In a series of scenarios beyond average conditions, the analysis shows energy procurement costs dominate the total life cycle cost for all technologies and, unfortunately, are highly variable geographically and temporally, significantly affecting the viability of the alternatives. Results show that site-energy consumption ranges from 0.3 MMBtu/klb for industrial heat pumps to 1.6 MMBtu/klb for biomass boilers, with heat pumps achieving up to 78% lower energy use compared to natural gas systems. For the steam costs, the results show a range between $\$$8 and $\$$50/klb for NG, with biomass following closely ($\$$11 – $\$$44/klb) and grey hydrogen and IHP next ($\$$13 – $\$$33/klb and $\$$6 - $\$$78/klb), with cost reductions if IHP's cooling is utilized. Factors like operating hours, the need for cooling, and the ability to negotiate utility rates complicate the decision, making site-specific analyses critical. Therefore, we present a decision-making matrix to help manufacturers identify which steam generating technology is the best business decision for their situation. Overall, these results highlight the importance of steam generation for the facility's organizational goals, as well as the criticality of conducting individual site analyses.

Biomass boilers↗
DOE OSTI2025

Wettability of Two-Dimensional Carbon Allotropes from Molecular Simulations

Force-field Monte Carlo and Molecular Dynamics simulations are used to compare wetting behaviors of model carbon sheets mimicking neat graphene, its saturated derivative, graphane, and related planar allotropes penta-graphene, γ-graphyne, and ψ-graphene in contact with aqueous droplets or an aqueous film confined between parallel carbon sheets. Atomistic and area-integrated surface/water potentials are found to be essentially equivalent in capturing moderate differences between the wetting free energies of tested substrates. Despite notable differences in mechanical and electric properties of distinct allotropes, the predicted allotrope/water contact angles span a narrow window of weakly hydrophilic values. Contact angles in the range of 80 ± 10° indicate modest hydration repulsion incapable of competing with van der Waals attraction between carbon particles. Poor dispersibility in neat water is hence a common feature of studied materials.

Biochemistry & Molecular Biology↗
DOE OSTI2025

Thermo-Mechanical Phase-Field Modeling of Fracture in High-Burnup UO2 Fuels Under Transient Conditions

This study presents a novel multiphysics phase-field fracture model to analyze high-burnup uranium dioxide (UO2) fuel behavior under transient reactor conditions. Fracture is treated as a stochastic phase transition, which inherently accounts for the random microstructural effects that lead to variations in the value of fracture strength. Moreover, the model takes into consideration the effects of temperature and burnup on thermal conductivity. Therefore, the model is able to predict crack initiation, propagation, and complex morphologies in response to thermal gradients and stress distributions. Several simulations were conducted to investigate the effects of operational and transient conditions on fracture behavior and the resulting cracking patterns. High-burnup fuels exhibit reduced thermal conductivity, elevating temperature gradients and resulting in extensive radial and circumferential cracks. Transient heating rates and temperatures significantly affect fracture patterns, with higher heating rates generating steeper gradients and more irregular crack trajectories. This approach provides critical insights into fuel integrity during accident scenarios and supports the safety evaluation of extended burnup limits.

Chemistry↗
NASA NTRS1992

Lightweight bipolar storage battery

An apparatus [10] is disclosed for a lightweight bipolar battery of the end-plate cell stack design. Current flow through a bipolar cell stack [12] is collected by a pair of copper end-plates [16a,16b] and transferred edgewise out of the battery by a pair of lightweight, low resistance copper terminals [28a,28b]. The copper terminals parallel the surface of a corresponding copper end-plate [16a,16b] to maximize battery throughput. The bipolar cell stack [12], copper end-plates [16a,16b] and copper terminals [28a,28b] are rigidly sandwiched between a pair of nonconductive rigid end-plates [20] having a lightweight fiber honeycomb core which eliminates distortion of individual plates within the bipolar cell stack due to internal pressures. Insulating foam [30] is injected into the fiber honeycomb core to reduce heat transfer into and out of the bipolar cell stack and to maintain uniform cell performance. A sealed battery enclosure [ 22] exposes a pair of terminal ends [26a,26b] for connection with an external circuit.

Rowlette, John J.↗
DOE OSTI2026

EXERGETIC: De-Risking Next-Generation Resilient Geothermal Hybrids via At-Scale Evaluation Using Virtual Emulation Digital Twin Environment for Efficient Operation

The DOE-GTO-funded project, award number 5.1.2.12, entitled "EXERGETIC - De-risking Next Generation Resilient Geothermal Hybrids via at-Scale Evaluation Using a Virtual Emulation Digital Twin Environment for Efficient Operation," advances the solution to these challenges by developing and validating a geothermal co-emulation environment implemented at the National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR)'s Advanced Research on Integrated Energy Systems (ARIES) platform. This framework enables the de-risking of next-generation geothermal and geothermal hybrid systems through high-fidelity modeling, real-time digital emulation, advanced control strategies, and techno-economic assessment. The project focused on geothermal hybrid configurations that integrate geothermal power plants with concentrated solar power and underground thermal energy storage, enabling enhanced efficiency, flexibility, and grid support capabilities. The main goal of this project was the development of a geothermal digital co-emulation environment to demonstrate the technical and economic value of geothermal hybrid systems and their contribution to grid stability and flexibility. The EXERGETIC framework combined physics-based models, controls, and real assets at ARIES, including digital real-time simulators (DRTS), a 20-MW-scale controllable grid interface (CGI), and a 2-MW conventional generator. Detailed transient models were developed for the key subsystems of a hybrid geothermal plant, including parabolic trough solar collectors, reservoir thermal energy storage (RTES), and a binary Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) power plant. The ORC model explicitly captured thermal inertia and off-design operation and integrated control strategies to dynamically respond to electric load profiles. The models were validated against published experimental and numerical studies, demonstrating strong agreement and confirming the accuracy and robustness of the modeling approach. The resulting digital twin represents geothermal-solar-storage systems at multiple scales (1 MW to 100 MW) and enables realistic emulation of grid-connected operation. The control architecture allows the geothermal resource to provide stable baseload generation, while solar and stored thermal energy supply flexible, dispatchable support during periods of high demand or variable grid conditions. A key contribution of the EXERGETIC project is the demonstration that geothermal hybrid systems can be designed to be active grid assets rather than passive baseload generators. Using the ARIES platform, the digital twin was evaluated under multiple grid scenarios, including load following, voltage support at the distribution level, and frequency response at the transmission level. Results show that hybrid geothermal systems can respond effectively to dynamic grid conditions, providing inertia-like behavior, primary frequency support, and voltage regulation through coordinated control. In addition to the performance and grid services capability analysis of geothermal and hybrid geothermal systems, the EXERGETIC project also focused on scalability and techno-economic analysis of geothermal hybrid plants. In particular, for the scalability analysis, machine-learning (ML)-based surrogate models were trained using data generated from the geothermal digital twin under different grid-connected scenarios and plant capacities. These ML models demonstrated strong interpolation and extrapolation capabilities across plant sizes, accurately reproducing both steady-state and transient responses with very low errors. Regarding the techno-economic analysis, plant performance results were integrated with cost models for hybrid geothermal systems, and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) was used as the main economic metric to evaluate system performance across a range of system capacities, solar shares, solar multiples, and storage durations. Results indicate that economies of scale significantly reduce geothermal LCOE as plant capacity increases, with large-scale systems (25-100 MW) achieving substantially lower costs than small plants. Hybridization with solar thermal energy and storage further improves economic performance by increasing capacity utilization and enabling flexible dispatch. In addition, thermal storage plays a critical role in reducing LCOE by maximizing geothermal, solar, and stored energy resources. In summary, the results from this project demonstrate that geothermal hybrid systems represent a promising alternative for increasing the energy conversion efficiency of geothermal technologies, contributing to the preservation of geothermal resources, and supporting the transition of geothermal plants from traditional baseload resources into flexible, resilient, and cost-competitive energy conversion technologies.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
NASA NTRS1995

Analysis of Developing Laminar Flows in Circular Pipes Using a Higher-Order Finite-Difference Technique

A higher-order finite-difference technique is developed to calculate the developing-flow field of steady incompressible laminar flows in the entrance regions of circular pipes. Navier-Stokes equations governing the motion of such a flow field are solved by using this new finite-difference scheme. This new technique can increase the accuracy of the finite-difference approximation, while also providing the option of using unevenly spaced clustered nodes for computation such that relatively fine grids can be adopted for regions with large velocity gradients. The velocity profile at the entrance of the pipe is assumed to be uniform for the computation. The velocity distribution and the surface pressure drop of the developing flow then are calculated and compared to existing experimental measurements reported in the literature. Computational results obtained are found to be in good agreement with existing experimental correlations and therefore, the reliability of the new technique has been successfully tested.

Herbert J Gladden↗
DOE OSTI2026

Modern insights into the mechanisms of neptunium oxalate decomposition

Neptunium oxalate (Np(C 2 O 4 ) 2 ·6H 2 O) is a historically relevant solid phase used in nuclear processing as a precursor for neptunium dioxide (NpO 2 ). Although Np oxalate has been synthesized and used for NpO 2 production for decades, the thermal decomposition mechanism of this phase remains poorly understood and has not been evaluated in over 30 years. Conflicting reports in historical literature suggest either a direct conversion from anhydrous oxalate to NpO 2 or a decomposition that includes the formation of Np carbonate or oxidized Np intermediate phases. In this work, we reexamine the decomposition pathway of Np(C 2 O 4 ) 2 ·6H 2 O using thermal analysis coupled with evolved gas analysis and temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy to elucidate decomposition mechanisms and intermediate phases using modern analytical techniques. Thermal analysis revealed a three-stage decomposition process, including dehydration below 200 °C, oxalate breakdown between 170 and 370 °C, and NpO 2 formation by 500 °C. However, an unidentified plateau in the thermal data was observed during measurements. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the stages of decomposition, and in the analysis of potential intermediate phases, no carbonate phases or Np 2 O 5 were identified. Raman data suggest that residual oxalate or nonstoichiometric oxide are present during decomposition before pure NpO 2 is formed. These findings clarify aspects of the Np oxalate decomposition mechanism and address longstanding discrepancies in the literature, with a specific focus on Np-specific materials chemistry.

Lawson, Kathryn M. [Oak Ridge National Laboratory ↗
NASA NTRS2005

Characterization of Ternary NiTiPt High-Temperature Shape Memory Alloys

Pt additions substituted for Ni in NiTi alloys are known to increase the transformation temperature of the alloy but only at fairly high Pt levels. However, until now only ternary compositions with a very specific stoichiometry, Ni 50-x Pt x Ti 50 , have been investigated and then only to very limited extent. In order to learn more about this potential high-temperature shape memory alloy system, a series of over twenty alloys along and on either side of a line of constant stoichiometry between NiTi and TiPt were arc melted, homogenized, and characterized in terms of their microstructure, transformation temperatures, and hardness. The resulting microstructures were examined by scanning electron microscopy and the phase compositions quantified by energy dispersive spectroscopy. "Stoichiometric" compositions along a line of constant stoichiometry between NiTi to TiPt were essentially single phase but any deviations from a stoichiometry of (Ni,Pt) 50 Ti 50 resulted in the presence of at least two different intermetallic phases, depending on the overall composition of the alloy. Essentially all alloys, whether single or two-phase, still under went a martensitic transformation. It was found that the transformation temperatures were depressed with initial Pt additions but at levels greater than 10 at.% the transformation temperature increased linearly with Pt content. Also, the transformation temperatures were relatively insensitive to alloy stoichiometry within the range of alloys examined. Finally, the dependence of hardness on Pt content for a series of Ni 50-x Pt x Ti 50 alloys showed solution softening at low Pt levels, while hardening was observed in ternary alloys containing more than about 10 at.% Pt. On either side of these "stoichiometric" compositions, hardness was also found to increase significantly.

Transformation Temperatures↗
DOE OSTI2024

Converting Second‐Order Saddle Points to Transition States: New Principles for the Design of 4π Photoswitches

Abstract Molecular photoswitches have demonstrated potential for storing solar energy at the molecular level, with power densities comparable to commercial batteries and hydroelectric energy storage. However, development of efficient photoswitches is hindered by limitations in cyclability and optical properties of existing materials. We here demonstrate that certain limitations in photoswitches based on electrocyclizations stem from the issue of controlling competition between Woodward‐Hoffmann allowed and forbidden pathways. Our approach moves beyond the traditional view of activation barriers and reveals that second‐order saddle points are crucial in dictating the competition between disrotatory and conrotatory pathways. These insights suggest new opportunities to manipulate the competition between these pathways through geometric constraints, fundamentally altering the connectivity of the potential energy surface. Our study also emphasizes the necessity of multi‐reference methods and the need to conduct higher‐dimensional explorations for competing pathways beyond photoswitch design.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enhancement of the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Cellulose Nanofibril-Reinforced Lignocellulosic Foams for Packaging and Building Applications

Biobased foams have the potential to serve as eco-friendly alternatives to petroleum-based foams, provided they achieve comparable thermomechanical and physical properties. We propose a facile approach to fabricate eco-friendly cellulose nanofibril (CNF)-reinforced thermomechanical pulp (TMP) fiber-based foams via an oven-drying process with thermal conductivity as low as 0.036 W/(m·K) at a 34.4 kg/m3 density. Acrodur®, iron chloride (FeCl3), and cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) were used to improve the foam properties. Acrodur® did not have any significant effect on the foamability and density of the foams. Mechanical, thermal, cushioning, and water absorption properties of the foams were dependent on the density and interactions of the additives with the fibers. Due to their high density, foams with CPAM and FeCl3 at a 1% additive dosage had significantly higher compressive properties at the expense of slightly higher thermal conductivity. There was slight increase in compressive properties with the addition of Acrodur®. All additives improved the water stability of the foams, rendering them stable even after 24 h of water absorption.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2026

Dynamic Interfacial Design in Adaptive Hybrid Materials Enables Reversible and Tunable Mechano-Optic Smart Responses

Next-generation polymeric materials are shifting toward adaptive and interactive behaviors of living systems; however, designing materials that can reversibly modulate optical properties under mechanical deformation while maintaining mechanical robustness remains a key challenge. Here, we report a mechanically robust vitrimer-based adaptive hybrid material (AHM) that exhibits a stretch-induced reversible transparency-to-opacity transition, enabled by the integration of dynamic interactions at the polymer–silica nanoparticle interface and controlled nanoparticle self-assembly. The AHM combines boronic ester–functionalized polystyrene-b-poly(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-polystyrene (S-Bpin) with diol-functionalized silica nanoparticles (diol-SiNPs) to form a hybrid network hosting both dynamic boronic ester and hydrogen-bonding interactions. These reversible linkages facilitate controlled nanoparticle self-assembly and enable strain-induced nanoparticle alignment/aggregation. Upon stretching, SiNP-rich domains align and aggregate within the polymer matrix, while local modulus mismatch between stiff aggregated SiNP/borylated-styrene-rich regions and the softer elastomeric midblock induces surface microwrinkle formation. These internal aggregates and surface wrinkles cooperatively enhance light scattering, producing the opaque state under strain. Furthermore, the tailored AHM exhibits high toughness, thermomechanical stability, reprocessability, and programmable shape-memory behavior. This work presents a dynamic interfacial design strategy for mechanically robust, optically reconfigurable, and reusable soft materials for adaptive optics, smart windows, sensing, soft robotics, and circular smart-material platforms.

adaptive hybrid materials↗