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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2014

X- and γ-ray pulsations of the nearby radio-faint PSR J1741–2054

We report the results of a deep XMM-Newton observation of the radio-faint γ-ray pulsar J1741–2054 and its nebula together with the analysis of five years of Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT) data. The X-ray spectrum of the pulsar is consistent with an absorbed power law plus a blackbody, originating at least partly from the neutron star cooling. The nebular emission is consistent with that of a synchrotron pulsar wind nebula, with hints of spatial spectral variation. We extended the available Fermi LAT ephemeris and folded the γ-ray and X-ray data. We detected X-ray pulsations from the neutron star: both the thermal and non-thermal components are ∼35%-40% pulsed, with phase-aligned maxima. A sinusoid fits the thermal-folded profile well. A 10 bin phase-resolved analysis of the X-ray emission shows softening of the non-thermal spectrum during the on-pulse phases. The radio, X-ray, and γ-ray light curves are single-peaked, not phase-aligned, with the X-ray peak trailing the γ-ray peak by more than half a rotation. Spectral considerations suggest that the most probable pulsar distance is in the 0.3-1.0 kpc range, in agreement with the radio dispersion measure.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Recovery Act: An Integrated Experimental and Numerical Study: Developing a Reaction Transport Model that Couples Chemical Reactions of Mineral Dissolution/Precipitation with Spatial and Temporal Flow Variations.

A total of 12 publications and 23 abstracts were produced as a result of this study. In particular, the compilation of a thermodynamic database utilizing consistent, current thermodynamic data is a major step toward accurately modeling multi-phase fluid interactions with solids. Existing databases designed for aqueous fluids did not mesh well with existing solid phase databases. Addition of a second liquid phase (CO2) magnifies the inconsistencies between aqueous and solid thermodynamic databases. Overall, the combination of high temperature and pressure lab studies (task 1), using a purpose built apparatus, and solid characterization (task 2), using XRCT and more developed technologies, allowed observation of dissolution and precipitation processes under CO2 reservoir conditions. These observations were combined with results from PIV experiments on multi-phase fluids (task 3) in typical flow path geometries. The results of the tasks 1, 2, and 3 were compiled and integrated into numerical models utilizing Lattice-Boltzmann simulations (task 4) to realistically model the physical processes and were ultimately folded into TOUGH2 code for reservoir scale modeling (task 5). Compilation of the thermodynamic database assisted comparisons to PIV experiments (Task 3) and greatly improved Lattice Boltzmann (Task 4) and TOUGH2 simulations (Task 5). PIV (Task 3) and experimental apparatus (Task 1) have identified problem areas in TOUGHREACT code. Additional lab experiments and coding work has been integrated into an improved numerical modeling code.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2016

Design and development of a probe-based multiplexed multi-species absorption spectroscopy sensor for characterizing transient gas-parameter distributions in the intake systems of I.C. engines

We designed and developed a 4-probe multiplexed multi-species absorption spectroscopy sensor system for gas property measurements on the intake side of commercial multi-cylinder internal-combustion (I.C.) engines; the resulting cycle- and cylinder-resolved concentration, temperature and pressure measurements are applicable for assessing spatial and temporal variations in the recirculated exhaust gas (EGR) distribution at various locations along the intake gas path, which in turn is relevant to assessing cylinder charge uniformity, control strategies, and CFD models. Furthermore, the diagnostic is based on absorption spectroscopy and includes an H 2 O absorption system (utilizing a 1.39 m distributed feedback (DFB) diode laser) for measuring gas temperature, pressure, and H 2 O concentration, and a CO 2 absorption system (utilizing a 2.7 m DFB laser) for measuring CO 2 concentration. The various lasers, optical components and detectors were housed in an instrument box, and the 1.39- m and 2.7- m lasers were guided to and from the engine-mounted probes via optical fibers and hollow waveguides, respectively. The 5kHz measurement bandwidth allows for near-crank angle resolved measurements, with a resolution of 1.2 crank angle degrees at 1000 RPM. Our use of compact stainless steel measurement probes enables simultaneous multi-point measurements at various locations on the engine with minimal changes to the base engine hardware; in addition to resolving large-scale spatial variations via simultaneous multi-probe measurements, local spatial gradients can be resolved by translating individual probes. Along with details of various sensor design features and performance, we also demonstrate validation of the spectral parameters of the associated CO 2 absorption transitions using both a multi-pass heated cell and the sensor probes.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2022

BioRT-Flux-PIHM v1.0: a biogeochemical reactive transport model at the watershed scale

Watersheds are the fundamental Earth surface functioning units that connect the land to aquatic systems. Many watershed-scale models represent hydrological processes but not biogeochemical reactive transport processes. This has limited our capability to understand and predict solute export, water chemistry and quality, and Earth system response to changing climate and anthropogenic conditions. Here we present a recently developed BioRT-Flux-PIHM (BioRT hereafter) v1.0, a watershed-scale biogeochemical reactive transport model. The model augments the previously developed RT-Flux-PIHM that integrates land-surface interactions, surface hydrology, and abiotic geochemical reactions. It enables the simulation of (1) shallow and deep-water partitioning to represent surface runoff, shallow soil water, and deeper groundwater and of (2) biotic processes including plant uptake, soil respiration, and nutrient transformation. The reactive transport part of the code has been verified against the widely used reactive transport code CrunchTope. BioRT-Flux-PIHM v1.0 has recently been applied in multiple watersheds under diverse climate, vegetation, and geological conditions. This paper briefly introduces the governing equations and model structure with a focus on new aspects of the model. It also showcases one hydrology example that simulates shallow and deep-water interactions and two biogeochemical examples relevant to nitrate and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). These examples are illustrated in two simulation modes of complexity. One is the spatially lumped mode (i.e., two land cells connected by one river segment) that focuses on processes and average behavior of a watershed. Another is the spatially distributed mode (i.e., hundreds of cells) that includes details of topography, land cover, and soil properties. Whereas the spatially lumped mode represents averaged properties and processes and temporal variations, the spatially distributed mode can be used to understand the impacts of spatial structure and identify hot spots of biogeochemical reactions. The model can be used to mechanistically understand coupled hydrological and biogeochemical processes under gradients of climate, vegetation, geology, and land use conditions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Increased leaf area index and efficiency drive enhanced production under elevated atmospheric [ CO 2 ] in a pine‐dominated stand showing no progressive nitrogen limitation

Abstract Enhancement of net primary production (NPP) in forests as atmospheric [CO 2 ] increases is likely limited by the availability of other growth resources. The Duke Free Air CO 2 Enrichment (FACE) experiment was located on a moderate‐fertility site in the southeastern US, in a loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) plantation with broadleaved species growing mostly in mid‐canopy and understory. Duke FACE ran from 1994 to 2010 and combined elevated [CO 2 ] (eCO 2 ) with nitrogen (N) additions. We assessed the spatial and temporal variation of NPP response using a dataset that includes previously unpublished data from 6 years of the replicated CO 2 × N experiment and extends to 2 years beyond the termination of enrichment. Averaged over time (1997–2010), NPP of pine and broadleaved species were 38% and 52% higher under eCO 2 compared to ambient conditions. Furthermore, there was no evidence of a decline in enhancement over time in any plot regardless of its native site quality. The relation between spatial variation in the response and native site quality was suggested but inconclusive. Nitrogen amendments under eCO 2 , in turn, resulted in an additional 11% increase in pine NPP. For pine, the eCO 2 ‐induced increase in NPP was similar above‐ and belowground and was driven by both increased leaf area index ( L ) and production efficiency (PE = NPP/ L ). For broadleaved species, coarse‐root biomass production was more than 200% higher under eCO 2 and accounted for the entire production response, driven by increased PE. Notably, the fraction of annual NPP retained in total living biomass was higher under eCO 2 , reflecting a slight shift in allocation fraction to woody mass and a lower mortality rate. Our findings also imply that tree growth may not have been only N‐limited, but perhaps constrained by the availability of other nutrients. The observed sustained NPP enhancement, even without N‐additions, demonstrates no progressive N limitation.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2015

The process domains concept as a framework for fish and mussel habitat in a coastal plain river of southeastern North America

Hydrologic processes interact with geomorphic patterns to create the spatial and temporal variation in riverine habitat that affects the distribution of aquatic species throughout stream networks. The process domains concept (PDC) states that longitudinally-abrupt changes in geomorphic processes along streams determine temporal patterns of natural disturbance that influence the distribution of stream organisms. Despite its potential generality, the PDC has been applied primarily to mountain streams of western North America. We tested the utility of the PDC as a conceptual framework for characterizing spatiotemporal variability in abiotic conditions and assessed the influence of process domains (PDs) on community composition of fishes and mussels along a fifth order river mainstem in the gulf coastal plain of the southeastern United States. We measured channel cross sections at three transects nested within three sites nested within three stream reaches to quantify multi-scale spatial variability in channel geomorphology along the mainstem of the Neches River, Texas, USA. Next, we modeled stage-dependent channel hydraulics to quantify temporal variability in habitat area and benthic disturbance. Lastly, we sampled fishes and mussels at each site and tested whether PDs correlate with spatial variation in taxonomic and functional community composition. Channel cross-sectional dimensions varied at the reach scale and affected the modeled temporal variability in habitat area and benthic disturbance. This interaction between channel geomorphology and disturbance regime indicated the presence of distinct PDs at the reach scale. Taxonomic composition of fishes did not differ among reaches, whereas abundance and richness of mussels were strongly reduced in the upper reach compared to the middle and lower reaches. Only slight differences in functional traits of fishes and mussels were apparent among reaches, suggesting that reach scale PDs do not influence community composition via the filtering of these functional traits. This study provides empirical evidence that the PDC is a useful framework for describing hydrogeomorphic conditions and mussel abundance and richness and can guide channel restorations in streams draining regions of low topography.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Understanding spatial and temporal drivers of variation in tree hydraulic processes and their consequences for climate feedbacks (Final Technical Report)

This is the final technical report from the first phase of a project that changed institutions. The grant was titled “Understanding spatial and temporal drivers of variation in tree hydraulic processes and their consequences for climate feedbacks.” The overall objectives of this project were to (1) provide model‐compatible datasets of key plant hydraulic traits and status for model evaluation, parameterization and validation and (2) use these data to pinpoint ecosystem responses to a changing hydroclimate by addressing both long‐term climatic drying and episodic extreme droughts. We planned to address the objectives with three research activities to quantify plant responses to chronic water stress and episodic drought: (1) generate high frequency observations of soil and plant hydraulic data across different landscape positions at multiple sites, (2) quantify plant hydraulic trait plasticity in response to experimental soil moisture reduction in situ in two central hardwood forests, and (3) simulate the carbon consequences of incorporating plant hydrodynamics and plant acclimation to water stress in the DOE‐sponsored plant hydrodynamics model FATES‐HYDRO. As of the transfer of this project to another institution, we had made substantial progress on activities 1 and 2, and started activity 3.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

Cyclist exposure to black carbon, ultrafine particles and heavy metals: An experimental study along two commuting routes near Antwerp, Belgium

Highlights: • Wearable UFP and BC instrumentation was carried along whilst cycling 2 different commuting routes. • HR-ICP-MS provided elemental information on railway- and roadside-exposed routes. • Heart rate was tracked simultaneously to estimate the personal inhaled pollutant dose. • The bicycle highway route exhibited 300% lower BC and 20% lower UFP concentrations. • Elemental differences are observed between the considered commuting routes. Urban environments typically exhibit large atmospheric pollution variation, in both space and time. In contrast to traditional monitoring networks suffering from a limited spatial coverage, mobile platforms enable personalized high-resolution monitoring, providing valuable insights into personal atmospheric pollution exposure, and the identification of potential pollution hotspots. This study evaluated personal cyclist exposure to UFPs, BC and heavy metals whilst commuting near Antwerp, Belgium, by performing mobile measurements with wearable black carbon (BC) and ultrafine particle (UFP) instruments. Loaded micro-aethalometer filterstrips were chemically analysed and the inhaled pollutant dose determined from the exhibited heart rate. Considerable spatial pollutant variation was observed along the travelled routes, with distinct contributions from spatial factors (e.g. traffic intersections, urban park and market) and temporary events. On average 300% higher BC, 20% higher UFP and changing elemental concentrations are observed along the road traffic route (RT), when compared to the bicycle highway route (BH). Although the overall background pollution determines a large portion of the experienced personal exposure (in this case 53% for BC and 40% for UFP), cyclists can influence their personal atmospheric pollution exposure, by selecting less exposed commuting routes. Our results, hereby, strengthen the body of evidence in favour of further policy investments in isolated bicycle infrastructure.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2012

Evaluation of Regional Climate Simulations over the Great Lakes Region Driven by Three Global Data Sets

The performance of regional climate simulations is evaluated for the Great Lakes region. Three 10-year (1990–1999) current-climate simulations are performed using the MM5 regional climate model (RCM) with 36-km horizontal resolution. The simulations employed identical configuration and physical parameterizations, but different lateral boundary conditions and sea-surface temperatures derived from the NCEP Global Reanalysis and output from the CCSM3 and GISS general circulation models (GCMs). The simulation results are compared to the North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR). The three RCM simulations appeared to be more accurate in winter and least accurate in summer, and more accurate aloft than near the surface. The reanalysis-constrained simulation adequately captured the spatial distribution and seasonal cycle of the observed surface-air temperature and precipitation, but it produced consistently across all seasons a cold bias that is generally larger over the lakes than over land and a wet bias due to an overestimation of nonconvective precipitation. The simulated seasonal cycle of moisture–flux convergence over the region was in very good agreement with NARR. The two GCM-driven runs adequately simulated the spatial and seasonal variation of temperature, but overestimated cold-season precipitation and underestimated summer precipitation, reversing the observed annual precipitation cycle. The GISS-driven run failed to simulate the prevailing low-level flow and moisture convergence patterns. All three RCM simulations successfully captured the impact of the Great Lakes on the region's climate, especially on winter precipitation, a significant improvement over coarse-resolution GCM simulations over the region.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2011

An approach for online evaluations of dose consequences caused by small rotational setup errors in intracranial stereotactic radiation therapy

Purpose: The purpose of this work is to investigate the impact of small rotational errors on the magnitudes and distributions of spatial dose variations for intracranial stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT) treatment setups, and to assess the feasibility of using the original dose map overlaid with rotated contours (ODMORC) method as a fast, online evaluation tool to estimate dose changes (using DVHs) to clinical target volumes (CTVs) and organs-at-risks (OARs) caused by small rotational setup errors. Methods: Fifteen intracranial SRT cases treated with either three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3DCRT) or intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) techniques were chosen for the study. Selected cases have a variety of anatomical dimensions and pathologies. Angles of {+-}3 deg. and {+-}5 deg. in all directions were selected to simulate the rotational errors. Dose variations in different regions of the brain, CTVs, and OARs were evaluated to illustrate the various spatial effects of dose differences before and after rotations. DVHs accounting for rotations that were recomputed by the treatment planning system (TPS) and those generated by the ODMORC method were compared. A framework of a fast algorithm for multicontour rotation implemented by ODMORC is introduced as well. Results: The average values of relative dose variations between original dose and recomputed dose accounting for rotations were greater than 4.0% and 10.0% in absolute mean and in standard deviation, respectively, at the skull and adjacent regions for all cases. They were less than 1.0% and 2.5% in absolute mean and in standard deviation, respectively, for dose points 3 mm away from the skull. The results indicated that spatial dose to any part of the brain organs or tumors separated from the skull or head surface would be relatively stable before and after rotations. Statistical data of CTVs and OARs indicate the lens and cochleas have the large dose variations before and after rotations, whereas the remaining ROIs have insignificant dose differences. DVH comparisons suggest that the ODMORC method is able to estimate the DVH of CTVs fairly accurately (within 1.5% of relative dose differences for evaluation volumes). The results also show that most of the OARs including the brain stem, spinal cord, chiasm, hippocampuses, optic nerves, and retinas, which were relatively distal from the skull and surface, had good agreement (within 2.0% of relative dose differences for 0.1 cc of the volumes ) between the ODMORC method and the recomputation, whereas OARs more proximate to the bone-tissue interface or surface, such as the lenses and cochlea, had larger dose variations (greater than 5.0%) for some cases due to the incapability of the ODMORC to account for scatter contribution variations proximate to interfaces and intrinsic dose calculation uncertainties for ROIs with small volumes. Conclusions: The ODMORC method can be implemented as an online evaluation system for rotation-induced dose changes of CTVs and most OARs and for other related dose consequence analyses.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2022

The impact of multi-sensor land data assimilation on river discharge estimation

River discharge is one of the most critical renewable water resources. Accurately estimating river discharge with land surface models (LSMs) remains challenging due to the difficulty in estimating land water storages such as snow, soil moisture, and groundwater. While data assimilation (DA) ingesting optical, microwave, and gravity measurements from space can help constrain theses storage states, its impacts on runoff and eventually river discharge are not fully understood. In this study, by taking advantage of recently published land DA results that jointly assimilate eight different combinations of observations from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), and Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for EOS (AMSR-E), we quantify to what degree multi-sensor land DA improves the river discharge simulation skills over 40 global river basins, and investigate the complementary strengths of different satellite measurements on river discharge. To be more specific, river discharge is updated by feeding gridded runoff from the eight multi-sensor DA simulations into a vector-based river routing model named the Routing Application for Parallel computatIon of Discharge (RAPID). Our modeling results, including 7-year simulations at 177,458 river reaches globally, are used to study the seasonal to interannual variability of river discharge. It is found that assimilating GRACE has the greatest impact on global runoff patterns, leading to the most pronounced improvements in spatial river discharge in the middle and high latitudes with the R 2 increased by 0.16. The seasonal variation of spatial discharge is most skillful during the boreal summer. However, our evaluation also shows model and DA still struggle to generate reasonable variability and averaged discharge over permafrost regions. Finally, by assessing how different satellites add value to discharge forecasts, this study paves the way for more advanced multi-sensor satellite data assimilation to predict the terrestrial hydrological cycle.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Accurate determination of genotypic variance of cell wall characteristics of a Populus trichocarpa pedigree using high-throughput pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry

Abstract Background Pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry (py-MBMS) analysis of a pedigree of Populus trichocarpa was performed to study the phenotypic plasticity and heritability of lignin content and lignin monomer composition. Instrumental and microspatial environmental variability were observed in the spectral features and corrected to reveal underlying genetic variance of biomass composition. Results Lignin-derived ions (including m/z 124, 154, 168, 194, 210 and others) were highly impacted by microspatial environmental variation which demonstrates phenotypic plasticity of lignin composition in Populus trichocarpa biomass. Broad-sense heritability of lignin composition after correcting for microspatial and instrumental variation was determined to be H 2 = 0.56 based on py-MBMS ions known to derive from lignin. Heritability of lignin monomeric syringyl/guaiacyl ratio ( S / G ) was H 2 = 0.81. Broad-sense heritability was also high (up to H 2 = 0.79) for ions derived from other components of the biomass including phenolics (e.g., salicylates) and C5 sugars (e.g., xylose). Lignin and phenolic ion abundances were primarily driven by maternal effects, and paternal effects were either similar or stronger for the most heritable carbohydrate-derived ions. Conclusions We have shown that many biopolymer-derived ions from py-MBMS show substantial phenotypic plasticity in response to microenvironmental variation in plantations. Nevertheless, broad-sense heritability for biomass composition can be quite high after correcting for spatial environmental variation. This work outlines the importance in accounting for instrumental and microspatial environmental variation in biomass composition data for applications in heritability measurements and genomic selection for breeding poplar for renewable fuels and materials.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Broadband wide-angle absorption enhancement due to mode conversion in cold unmagnetized plasmas with periodic density variations

We study theoretically the mode conversion and the associated resonant absorption of p-polarized electromagnetic waves into longitudinal plasma oscillations in cold, unmagnetized and stratified plasmas with periodic spatial density variations. We consider sinusoidal density configurations for which the frequency band where mode conversion occurs is well included within a transmission band of the one-dimensional plasma photonic crystal. We calculate the mode conversion coefficient, which measures the fraction of the electromagnetic wave energy absorbed into the plasma, and the spatial distribution of the magnetic field intensity for various values of the wave frequency and the incident angle using the invariant imbedding theory of mode conversion. We find that the absorption is greatly enhanced over a wide range of frequency and incident angle due to the interplay between the mode conversion and the photonic band structure. The enhancement occurs because for frequencies within a transmission band, the wave reflection is strongly suppressed and the waves penetrate more deeply into the inhomogeneous region, thereby increasing the possibility for them to reach many resonance points where the dielectric permittivity vanishes.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

Characterization of shaped Bragg crystal assemblies for narrowband x-ray imaging

X-ray imaging using shaped crystals in Bragg reflection is a powerful technique used in high-energy-density physics experiments. The characterization of these crystal assemblies with conventional x-ray sources is very difficult because of the required angular resolution of the order of ~10 μrad and the narrow bandwidth of the crystal. The 10-J, 1-ps Multi-Terawatt (MTW) laser at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics was used to characterize a set of Bragg crystal assemblies. The small spot size (of the order of 5 μm) and the high power (>10 18 W/cm 2 ) of this laser make it possible to measure the spatial resolution at the intended photon energy. A set of six crystals from two different vendors was checked on MTW, showing an unexpectedly large variation in spatial resolution of up to a factor of 4.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2020

Nitrogen Fertilization Restructured Spatial Patterns of Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen in Switchgrass and Gamagrass Croplands in Tennessee USA

Nitrogen (N) fertilizers can potentially alter spatial distribution of soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations in croplands such as switchgrass (SG: Panicum virgatum L.) and gamagrass (GG: Tripsacum dactyloides L.), but it remains unclear whether these effects are the same between crops and under different rates of fertilization. 13 C and 15 N are two important proxy measures of soil biogeochemistry, but they were rarely examined as to their spatial distributions in soil. Based on a three-year long fertilization experiment in Middle Tennessee, USA, the top mineral horizon soils (0–15 cm) were collected using a spatially explicit design within two 15-m 2 plots under three fertilization treatments in SG and GG croplands. A total of 288 samples were collected based on 12 plots and 24 samples in each plot. The fertilization treatments were no N input (NN), low N input (LN: 84 kg N ha -1 in urea) and high N input (HN: 168 kg N ha -1 in urea). The SOC, TN, SOC/TN (C: N), δ 13 C and δ 15 N were quantified and their within-plot variations and spatial distributions were achieved via descriptive and geostatistical methods. Results showed that SG generally displayed 10~120% higher plot-level variations in all variables than GG, and the plot-level variations were 20~77% higher in NN plots than LN and HN plots in SG but they were comparable in unfertilized and fertilized plots in GG. Relative to NN, LN and HN showed more significant surface trends and spatial structures in SOC and TN in both croplands, and the fertilization effect appeared more pronounced in SG. Spatial patterns in C: N, δ 13 C and δ 15 N were comparable among different fertilization treatments in both croplands. The descending within-plot variations were also identified among variables (SOC > TN > δ 15 N > C: N > δ 13 C). This study demonstrated that N fertilizations generally reduced the plot-level variance and simultaneously re-established spatial structures of SOC and TN in bioenergy croplands, which little varied with fertilization rate but was more responsive in switchgrass cropland.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗