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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 865 records · Page 48
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2016

Characterization of silica quartz as raw material in photovoltaic applications

Raw materials are essential for the functioning of modern societies, and access to these raw materials is vital to the world economy. Sustainable development, both globally level, raises important new challenges associated with access and efficient use of raw materials. High purity quartz, is consider as a critical raw material and it is a rare commodity that only forms under geological conditions where a narrow set of chemical and physical parameters is fulfilled. When identified and following special beneficiation techniques, high purity quartz obtains very attractive prices and is applied in high technology sectors that currently are under rapid expansion such as photovoltaic solar cells, silicon metal - oxide wafers in the semiconductor industry and long distance optical fibers that are used in communication networks. Crystalline silicon remains the principal material for photovoltaic technology. Metallurgical silicon is produced industrially by the reduction of silica with carbon in an electric arc furnace at temperatures higher than 2000 °C in the hottest parts, by a reaction that can be written ideally as: SiO{sub 2} + 2C = Si + 2CO. The aim of this study has been to test experimental methods for investigating the various physical and chemical proprieties of Hoggar quartz with different techniques: X Ray Fluorescence, infra-red spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Optic Microscopy, Carbon Analyzer and Vickers Hardness. The results show finally that the quartz has got good result in purity but need enrichment for the photovoltaic application.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Electron Tomography and Machine Learning for Understanding the Highly Ordered Structure of Leafhopper Brochosomes

Insects known as leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) produce hierarchically structured nanoparticles known as brochosomes that are exuded and applied to the insect cuticle, thereby providing camouflage and anti-wetting properties to aid insect survival. Although the physical properties of brochosomes are thought to depend on the leafhopper species, the structure–function relationships governing brochosome behavior are not fully understood. Brochosomes have complex hierarchical structures and morphological heterogeneity across species, due to which a multimodal characterization approach is required to effectively elucidate their nanoscale structure and properties. In this work, we study the structural and mechanical properties of brochosomes using a combination of atomic force microscopy (AFM), electron microscopy (EM), electron tomography, and machine learning (ML)-based quantification of large and complex scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image data sets. This suite of techniques allows for the characterization of internal and external brochosome structures, and ML-based image analysis methods of large data sets reveal correlations in the structure across several leafhopper species. Our results show that brochosomes are relatively rigid hollow spheres with characteristic dimensions and morphologies that depend on leafhopper species. Nanomechanical mapping AFM is used to determine a characteristic compression modulus for brochosomes on the order of 1–3 GPa, which is consistent with crystalline proteins. Altogether, this work provides an improved understanding of the structural and mechanical properties of leafhopper brochosomes using a new set of ML-based image classification tools that can be broadly applied to nanostructured biological materials.

Chemical structure↗
DOE OSTI2016

Copper vapor-assisted growth of hexagonal graphene domains on silica islands

Silica (SiO{sub 2}) islands with a dendritic structure were prepared on polycrystalline copper foil, using silane (SiH{sub 4}) as a precursor, by annealing at high temperature. Assisted by copper vapor from bare sections of the foil, single-layer hexagonal graphene domains were grown directly on the SiO{sub 2} islands by chemical vapor deposition. Scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, Raman spectra, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirm that hexagonal graphene domains, each measuring several microns, were synthesized on the silica islands.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Emergence of Rapid Oxygen Surface Exchange Kinetics during in Situ Crystallization of Mixed Conducting Thin Film Oxides

The oxygen surface exchange kinetics of mixed ionic and electronic conducting oxides (MIECs) play a vital role in the efficiency of intermediate-to-high-temperature electrochemical devices. While there is increasing interest in low-temperature preparation of MIEC thin films, the impact of the resultant varied degrees of crystallinity on the surface exchange kinetics has not been widely investigated. Herein, we probe the effect of crystallization on oxygen surface exchange kinetics in situ, by applying an optical transmission relaxation (OTR) approach during annealing of amorphous films. OTR enables contact-free, in situ, and continuous quantification of the oxygen surface exchange coefficient ( k chem ); we previously applied it to Pr x Ce 1– x O 2-δ and SrTi 1– x Fe x O 3-δ thin films. In this work, the OTR approach was successfully extended to other mixed conducting thin film compositions for the first time (i.e., perovskite SrTi 0.65 Co 0.35 O 3-δ and Ruddlesden–Popper Sr 2 Ti 0.65 Fe 0.35 O 4±δ ), as well as to Pr 0.1 Ce 0.9 O 2-δ , enabling quantification of the k chem of their native surfaces and comparison of the behavior of films with different final crystal structures. All thin films were prepared by pulsed laser deposition at 25 or 700–800 °C and subject to subsequent thermal treatments with simultaneous OTR monitoring of k chem . The surface roughness, grain size, and crystallinity were evaluated by scanning probe microscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Fluorite Pr 0.1 Ce 0.9 O 2-δ films grown at 25 °C did not exhibit an increase in k chem after annealing, as they were already crystalline as grown at 25 °C. For all other compositions, OTR enabled in situ observation of both the crystallization process and the emergence of rapid surface exchange kinetics immediately upon crystallization. Perovskite SrTi 0.65 Co 0.35 O 3-δ and Ruddlesden–Popper Sr 2 Ti 0.65 Fe 0.35 O 4±δ thin films grown at 25 °C exhibited at least 1–2 orders of magnitude enhanced k chem after annealing compared with highly crystalline thin films grown at 800 °C, indicating the benefits of in situ crystallization.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

Characterization of Pu-238 Heat Source Granule Containment

The Milliwatt Radioisotopic Themoelectric Generator (RTG) provides power for permissive-action links. Essentially these are nuclear batteries that convert thermal energy to electrical energy using a doped silicon-germanium thermopile. The thermal energy is provided by a heat source made of 238 Pu, in the form of 238 PuO 2 granules. The granules are contained by 3 layers of encapsulation. A thin T-111 liner surrounds the 238 PuO 2 granules and protects the second layer (strength member) from exposure to the fuel granules. An outer layer of Hastalloy-C protects the T-111 from oxygen embrittlement. The T-111 strength member is considered the critical component in this 238 PuO 2 containment system. Any compromise in the strength member seen during destructive testing required by the RTG surveillance program is characterized. The T-111 strength member is characterized through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Metallography. SEM is used in the Secondary Electron mode to reveal possible grain boundary deformation and/or cracking in the region of the strength member weld. Deformation and cracking uncovered by SEM are further characterized by Metallography. Metallography sections are mounted and polished, observed using optical microscopy, then documented in the form of microphotographs. SEM mat further be used to examine polished Metallography mounts to characterize elements using the SEM mode of Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS).

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗
DOE OSTI2016

Degradation and corresponding failure mechanism for GaN-based LEDs

The degradation behaviors of high power GaN-based vertical blue LEDs on Si substrates were measured using in-situ accelerated life test. The results show that the dominant failure mechanism would be different during the operation. Besides that, the corresponding associated failure mechanisms were investigated systematically by using different analysis technologies, such as Scan Electron Microscopy, Reflectivity spectroscopy, Transient Thermal Analysis, Raman Spectra, etc. It is shown that initially, the failure modes were mainly originated from the semiconductor die and interconnect, while afterwards, the following serious deterioration of the radiant fluxes was attributed to the package. The interface material and quality, such as die attach and frame, play an important role in determining the thermal performance and reliability. In addition, the heating effect during the operation will also release the compressive strain in the chip. These findings will help to improve the reliability of GaN-based LEDs, especially for the LEDs with vertical structure.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2024

Cost-Effective Thermomechanical Processing of Nanostructured Ferritic Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties Investigation

Nanostructured ferritic alloys (NFAs), such as oxide-dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys, play a vital role in advanced fission and fusion reactors, offering superior properties when incorporating nanoparticles under irradiation. Despite their importance, the high cost of mass-producing NFAs through mechanical milling presents a challenge. This study delves into the microstructure-mechanical property correlations of three NFAs produced using a novel, cost-effective approach combining severe plastic deformation (SPD) with the continuous thermomechanical processing (CTMP) method. Analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM)-electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) revealed nano-grain structures and phases, while scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM)-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) quantified the size and density of Ti-N, Y-O, and Cr-O fine particles. Atom probe tomography (APT) further confirmed the absence of finer Y-O particles and characterized the chemical composition of the particles, suggesting possible nitride dispersion strengthening. Correlation of microstructure and mechanical testing results revealed that CTMP alloys, despite having lower nanoparticle densities, exhibit strength and ductility comparable to mechanically milled ODS alloys, likely due to their fine grain structure. However, higher nanoparticle densities may be necessary to prevent cavity swelling under high-temperature irradiation and helium gas production. Further enhancements in uniform nanoparticle distribution and increased sink strength are recommended to mitigate cavity swelling, advancing their suitability for nuclear applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2017

Surface Modification of Rock-Forming Minerals of Diamond-Bearing Kimberlites under Interaction with Wastewater and Electrochemically Treated Water

The structural and chemical surface transformation of basic kimberlite-forming minerals (calcite, olivine, serpentine) under the contact with natural and waste mineralized water and products of electrochemical treatment of the water are studied using X-ray photoelectronic spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray spectral micro-analysis, and atomic force microscopy. It is found that contact with kimberlite extract and recycling water induces chemical modification of calcite surface, which consists in adsorption of hydrocarbon impurities, and chlorine- and silica-bearing compounds, majority of which are removed during interaction with the product of electrochemical treatment of recycling water. The change in the structural and chemical surface properties of rock-forming silicates, aside from adsorption–desorption of organic compound, is also connected with the distortion of nano-size layer structure after leaching of Mg, Fe and Si, and with the carbonatization of the surface.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2015

Fabrication of chitosan/polyacrylonitrile blend and semi-IPN hydrogel with epichlorohydrin

The present study is focused on the preparation of chitosan (CS)/polyacrylonitrile (PAN) blend and semi-interpenetrating polymer network (sIPN). Blend CS/PAN hydrogel films (HFs) were prepared by solution blending and casting technique. CS in the blend was crosslinked with epichlorohydrin (ECH) to prepare sIPN. The developed CS/PAN blend and sIPN hydrogels were characterized with Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermagravimetric analysis (TGA), and Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). The result showed good miscibility between CS and PAN and crosslinking of CS in the blend. The swelling of the different blended and sIPN hydrogels samples were examined at room temperature (T{sub r}). Blend (C80/P20) sample showed highest swelling (∼2400%) and fair degree of stability (∼28% until 96 h), whereas sIPN hydrogel exhibited relatively low degree of swelling (∼244%) and high degree of aqueous (∼85 % until 96 h), and thermal (onset temperature 304°C) stabilities.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2017

A New Method for Qualitative Multi-scale Analysis of Bacterial Biofilms on Filamentous Fungal Colonies Using Confocal and Electron Microscopy

Bacterial biofilms frequently form on fungal surfaces and can be involved in numerous bacterial-fungal interaction processes, such as metabolic cooperation, competition, or predation. The study of biofilms is important in many biological fields, including environmental science, food production, and medicine. However, few studies have focused on such bacterial biofilms, partially due to the difficulty of investigating them. Most of the methods for qualitative and quantitative biofilm analyses described in the literature are only suitable for biofilms forming on abiotic surfaces or on homogeneous and thin biotic surfaces, such as a monolayer of epithelial cells. While laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) is often used to analyze in situ and in vivo biofilms, this technology becomes very challenging when applied to bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae, due to the thickness and the three dimensions of the hyphal networks. To overcome this shortcoming, we developed a protocol combining microscopy with a method to limit the accumulation of hyphal layers in fungal colonies. Using this method, we were able to investigate the development of bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae at multiple scales using both LSCM and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Furthermore, this report describes the protocol, including microorganism cultures, bacterial biofilm formation conditions, biofilm staining, and LSCM and SEM visualizations.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2014

Synthesis, structure and properties of Na[AsW{sub 2}O{sub 9}]

Single crystal and polycrystalline powder samples of sodium arseno-tungstate of composition Na[AsW{sub 2}O{sub 9}] were synthesized using high-temperature solid-state methods. The greenish single crystals of the phase were characterized by X-ray diffraction data structure determination and the bulk compound confirmed by powder X-ray data Rietveld refinements. Additionally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) attached with energy dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy (EDX), thermogravimetry (TG), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy was performed. A comparative study between Na[AsW{sub 2}O{sub 9}] and isotypic K[AsW{sub 2}O{sub 9}] demonstrates the structural modifications and the consequent properties. Placing sodium in the channel of the arseno-tungstate framework, the average As-O and W-O bond distances did not change due to their rigid-unit like behaviors. However, the unit cell volume contracted about 7.4% caused by shrinkage of the channel dimensions due to shorter Na-O bond distances. The non-linear optical property of the compound has been explained in terms of asymmetric W-O and As-O chemical bonding led by WO{sub 6} and AsO{sub 4} polyhedral distortion, respectively.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Synergistic Effect of Graphene Oxide for Impeding the Dendritic Plating of Li

Dendritic growth of lithium (Li) has severely impeded the practical application of Li-metal batteries. Herein, a 3D conformal graphene oxide nanosheet (GOn) coating, confined into the woven structure of a glass fiber separator, is reported, which permits facile transport of Li-ions thought its structure, meanwhile regulating the Li deposition. Electrochemical measurements illustrate a remarkably enhanced cycle life and stability of the Li-metal anode, which is explained by various microscopy and modeling results. Utilizing scanning electron microscopy, focused ion beam, and optical imaging, the formation of an uniform Li film on the electrode surface in the case of GO-modified samples is revealed. Ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations suggest that Li-ions initially get adsorbed to the lithiophilic GOn and then diffuse through defect sites. This delayed Li transfer eliminates the “tip effect” leading to a more homogeneous Li nucleation. Meanwhile, C-C bonds rupture observed in the GO during AIMD simulations creates more pathways for faster Li-ions transport. In addition, phase-field modeling demonstrates that mechanically rigid GOn coating with proper defect size (smaller than 25 nm) can physically block the anisotropic growth of Li. This new understanding is a significant step toward the employment of 2D materials for regulating the Li deposition

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Effect of Hot Isostatic Pressing and Powder Feedstock on Porosity, Microstructure, and Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser Melted AlSi10Mg

AlSi10Mg tensile bars were additively manufactured using the powder-bed selective laser melting process. Samples were subjected to stress relief annealing and hot isostatic pressing. Tensile samples built using fresh, stored, and reused powder feedstock were characterized for microstructure, porosity, and mechanical properties. Fresh powder exhibited the best mechanical properties and lowest porosity while stored and reused powder exhibited inferior mechanical properties and higher porosity. The microstructure of stress relieved samples was fine and exhibited (001) texture in the z-build direction. Microstructure for hot isostatic pressed samples was coarsened with fainter (001) texture. To investigate surface and interior defects, scanning electron microscopy, optical fractography, and laser scanning microscopy techniques were employed. Hot isostatic pressing eliminated internal pores and reduced the size of surface porosity associated with the selective laser melting process. Hot isostatic pressing tended to increase ductility at the expense of decreasing strength. Furthermore, scatter in ductility of hot isostatic pressed parts suggests that the presence of unclosed surface porosity facilitated fracture with crack propagation inward from the surface of the part.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2017

Crystallographic texture and microstructural changes in fusion welds of recrystallized Zry-4 rolled plates

This study presents a detailed characterization of the microstructural and crystallographic texture changes observed in the transition region in a weld between two Zircaloy-4 cold rolled and recrystallized plates. The microstructural study was performed by optical microscopy under polarized light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Texture changes were characterized at different lengthscales: in the micrometric size, orientation imaging maps (OIM) were constructed by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), in the millimetre scale, high energy XRD experiments were done at the Advanced Photon Source (USA) and compared to neutron diffraction texture determinations performed in the HIPPO instrument at Los Alamos National Laboratory. In the heat affected zone (HAZ) we observed the development of Widmanstätten microstructures, typical of the α( hcp ) to β( bcc ) phase transformation. Associated with these changes a rotation of the c-poles is found in the HAZ and fusion zone. While the base material shows the typical texture of a cold rolled plate, with their c-poles pointing 35° apart from the normal direction of the plate in the normal-transversal line, in the HAZ, c-poles align along the transversal direction of the plate and then re-orient along different directions, all of these changes occurring within a lengthscale in the order of mm. The evolution of texture in this narrow region was captured by both OIM and XRD, and is consistent with previous measurements done by Neutron Diffraction in the HIPPO diffractometer at Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA. The microstructural and texture changes along the HAZ were interpreted as arising due to the effect of differences in the cooling rate and β grain size on the progress of the different α variants during transformation. Fast cooling rates and large β grains are associated to weak variant selection during the β–>α transformation, while slow cooling rates and fine β grains result in strong variant selection.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Different Damp-Heat-Induced Series Resistance Degradation Behaviors in Fielded Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules Due to Difference in Bill of Materials

This case study investigates mono-crystalline silicon modules from underperforming portions of a utility-scale photovoltaic power plant. Field-collected I-V curves and electroluminescence imaging suggested that increased series resistance was a primary factor driving module degradation. Selected modules were removed from the field for further analysis, including incremental damp heat accelerated testing, which confirmed a progression in series resistance degradation. Two distinct cell degradation behaviors became apparent during the investigation. Cross-sectional scanning electron microscopy (with elemental analysis) and scanning spreading resistance microscopy identified key differences between the two degradation mechanisms, primarily grid finger width and contact resistance. Additionally, the study highlights the reliability implications of retest requirements in International Electrotechnical Commission 61215 for material changes and how they may have mitigated the degradation observed at this site.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2015

The survivability of phyllosilicates and carbonates impacting Stardust Al foils: Facilitating the search for cometary water

Abstract Comet 81P/Wild 2 samples returned by NASA's Stardust mission provide an unequalled opportunity to study the contents of, and hence conditions and processes operating on, comets. They can potentially validate contentious interpretations of cometary infrared spectra and in situ mass spectrometry data: specifically the identification of phyllosilicates and carbonates. However, Wild 2 dust was collected via impact into capture media at ~6 km s −1 , leading to uncertainty as to whether these minerals were captured intact, and, if subjected to alteration, whether they remain recognizable. We simulated Stardust Al foil capture conditions using a two‐stage light‐gas gun, and directly compared transmission electron microscope analyses of pre‐ and postimpact samples to investigate survivability of lizardite and cronstedtite (phyllosilicates) and calcite (carbonate). We find the phyllosilicates do not survive impact as intact crystalline materials but as moderately to highly vesiculated amorphous residues lining resultant impact craters, whose bulk cation to Si ratios remain close to that of the impacting grain. Closer inspection reveals variation in these elements on a submicron scale, where impact‐induced melting accompanied by reducing conditions (due to the production of oxygen scavenging molten Al from the target foils) has resulted in the production of native silicon and Fe‐ and Fe‐Si‐rich phases. In contrast, large areas of crystalline calcite are preserved within the calcite residue, with smaller regions of vesiculated, Al‐bearing calcic glass. Unambiguous identification of calcite impactors on Stardust Al foil is therefore possible, while phyllosilicate impactors may be inferred from vesiculated residues with appropriate bulk cation to Si ratios. Finally, we demonstrate that the characteristic textures and elemental distributions identifying phyllosilicates and carbonates by transmission electron microscopy can also be observed by state‐of‐the‐art scanning electron microscopy providing rapid, nondestructive initial mineral identifications in Stardust residues.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Designing an impedance-based technique for studying corrosion on cladding materials

In nuclear cladding materials, changes in structure and chemistry over the lifetime of claddings can have a significant impact on fuel and reactor performance. Currently, chemical evolution over the lifetime of the fuel and cladding materials can only be inferred using post-irradiation examination. As an alternative to post-irradiation measurements, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) can provide an in-pile measurement of changes in chemistry in oxides and hydrides. The objective of this study is to develop an impedance based sensing technology for measuring spatial- and time-resolved in-pile changes in cladding chemistry in order to understand the mechanisms of hydride formation, hydride dealloying and associated cladding corrosion so that a mitigation strategy and technology can be developed for reactor safe operation. Two prototype impedance-based sensors were designed and assembled using Zr-4 as working electrode and Pt as counter and reference electrode. One sensor is tubular type and the other one is plate-type. These sensors will be tested in static autoclave to investigate the effects of various environmental conditions (including temperature, pressure, and water chemistry) on cladding material corrosion mechanisms. These in-situ EIS sensors would provide corrosion-layer parameters in high-temperature water, such as (1) total layer thickness, (2) the evolution of oxide structures as uniform layer dielectric or sublayer(s), and (3) the possible electrochemistry of the volume corrosion process and the solid/liquid interface, such as the cyclic nature of corrosion of Zr alloys in high-temperature water. This work was focused on electrochemical sensor development, targeting cladding oxides/hydrides under thermodynamic equilibria; characterization of samples using Kelvin probe force microscopy (SKPFM), Raman spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to provide high-resolution co-localized characterization of zirconium oxide and metal/oxide interface.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2019

Quantifying and Qualifying Alloys Based on Level of Homogenization: A U–10 wt% Mo Alloy Case Study

Homogenization heat treatment is performed to attain uniformity in microstructure of metals and metal alloys, which is helpful to achieve the desired workability and microstructure in final products, and eventually to gain predictable and consistent performance. Fabrication of fuel plates made from a low-enriched uranium alloy with 10 wt% Mo (U-10Mo) involves multiple thermomechanical processing steps. It is well known that the molybdenum homogeneity in the final formed product affects the fuel performance in the nuclear reactor. To make sure these materials are uniformly homogenized, a statistical method was proposed to quantify and characterize the Mo concentration variation in U-10Mo fuel plates by analyzing the Mo concentration measurement data from scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive spectroscopy line scans. Statistical tolerance intervals were employed to determine the qualification of U-10Mo fuel plates. We formulate an argument for the minimum number of independent samples required to define fuel plate qualification if no Mo measurement data are available in advance, and demonstrate that the given tolerance interval requirements can be equivalently reduced to a sample variance criterion in this application. The outcome of the statistical analysis can be used to optimize casting design and eventually increase productivity and reduce fabrication cost. The statistical strategy developed in this report can be implemented for other applications, especially in the field of material manufacturing to assess qualification requirements and monitor and improve process design.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗