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NASA NTRS2007

MCM Polarimetric Radiometers for Planar Arrays

A polarimetric radiometer that operates at a frequency of 40 GHz has been designed and built as a prototype of multiple identical units that could be arranged in a planar array for scientific measurements. Such an array is planned for use in studying the cosmic microwave background (CMB). All of the subsystems and components of this polarimetric radiometer are integrated into a single multi-chip module (MCM) of substantially planar geometry. In comparison with traditional designs of polarimetric radiometers, the MCM design is expected to greatly reduce the cost per unit in an array of many such units. The design of the unit is dictated partly by a requirement, in the planned CMB application, to measure the Stokes parameters I, Q, and U of the CMB radiation with high sensitivity. (A complete definition of the Stokes parameters would exceed the scope of this article. In necessarily oversimplified terms, I is a measure of total intensity of radiation, while Q and U are measures of the relationships between the horizontally and vertically polarized components of radiation.) Because the sensitivity of a single polarimeter cannot be increased significantly, the only way to satisfy the high-sensitivity requirement is to make a large array of polarimeters that operate in parallel. The MCM includes contact pins that can be plugged into receptacles on a standard printed-circuit board (PCB). All of the required microwave functionality is implemented within the MCM; any required supporting non-microwave ("back-end") electronic functionality, including the provision of DC bias and control signals, can be implemented by standard PCB techniques. On the way from a microwave antenna to the MCM, the incoming microwave signal passes through an orthomode transducer (OMT), which splits the radiation into an h + i(nu) beam and an h - i(nu) beam (where, using complex-number notation, h denotes the horizontal component, nu denotes the vertical component, and +/-i denotes a +/-90deg phase shift). Each of these beams enters the MCM through one of two WR-22 waveguide input terminals in the lid of the MCM. The h + i(nu0 and h - i(nu) signals are amplified, then fed to a phase-discriminator hybrid designed specifically to fit the predominantly planar character of the MCM geometry and to enable determination of Q and U. The phase-discriminator hybrid generates four outputs, which are detected and used to calculate I, Q, and U.

Kangaslahti, Pekka↗

NASA NTRS2011

Spatial Correlation of Rain Drop Size Distribution from Polarimetric Radar and 2D-Video Disdrometers

Spatial correlations of two of the main rain drop-size distribution (DSD) parameters - namely the median-volume diameter (Do) and the normalized intercept parameter (Nw) - as well as rainfall rate (R) are determined from polarimetric radar measurements, with added information from 2D video disdrometer (2DVD) data. Two cases have been considered, (i) a widespread, long-duration rain event in Huntsville, Alabama, and (ii) an event with localized intense rain-cells within a convection line which occurred during the MC3E campaign. For the first case, data from a C-band polarimetric radar (ARMOR) were utilized, with two 2DVDs acting as ground-truth , both being located at the same site 15 km from the radar. The radar was operated in a special near-dwelling mode over the 2DVDs. In the second case, data from an S-band polarimetric radar (NPOL) data were utilized, with at least five 2DVDs located between 20 and 30 km from the radar. In both rain event cases, comparisons of Do, log10(Nw) and R were made between radar derived estimates and 2DVD-based measurements, and were found to be in good agreement, and in both cases, the radar data were subsequently used to determine the spatial correlations For the first case, the spatial decorrelation distance was found to be smallest for R (4.5 km), and largest fo Do (8.2 km). For log10(Nw) it was 7.2 km (Fig. 1). For the second case, the corresponding decorrelation distances were somewhat smaller but had a directional dependence. In Fig. 2, we show an example of Do comparisons between NPOL based estimates and 1-minute DSD based estimates from one of the five 2DVDs.

Thurai, Merhala↗

NASA NTRS2012

Dual-Polarimetric Radar-Based Tornado Debris Signatures and Paths Associated with Tornadoes Over Northern Alabama During the Historic Outbreak of 27 April 2011

A historic tornado and severe weather outbreak devastated much of the southeastern United States between 25 and 28 April 2011. On 27 April 2011, northern Alabama was particularly hard hit by 40 tornadoes, including 6 that reached EF-4 to EF-5 on the Enhanced Fujita damage scale. In northern Alabama alone, there were approximately 100 fatalities and hundreds of people who were injured or lost their homes during the havoc caused by these violent tornadic storms. Many of these tornadoes occurred within range of the University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAHuntsville) Advanced Radar for Meteorological and Operational Research (ARMOR, C-band dual-polarimetric). A unique capability of dual-polarimetric radar is the near-real time identification of lofted debris associated with ongoing tornadoes. The focus of this paper is to analyze the dual-polarimetric radar-inferred tornado debris signatures in 6 tornadoes in North Alabama on April 27, 2011. Several of these debris signatures were disseminated in real-time to the NWS Huntsville and local media to confirm storm spotter reports, confidence to enhance wording within warnings, and accurately pinpoint the locations of tornadoes for residents downstream of the storm. Also, the debris signature locations were used in post-event storm surveys to help locate areas of damage in regions where damage went unreported, or to help separate tornado tracks that were in close proximity to each other. Furthermore, the relative locations of the debris and damage paths for long track EF-4 and EF-5 tornadoes will be ascertained by careful comparison of the ARMOR analysis with NASA MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) and ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) satellite imagery of the tornado damage scenes and the National Weather Service tornado damage surveys.

Carey, Lawrence D.↗

NASA NTRS2011

Techniques and Tools for Estimating Ionospheric Effects in Interferometric and Polarimetric SAR Data

The InSAR Scientific Computing Environment (ISCE) is a flexible, extensible software tool designed for the end-to-end processing and analysis of synthetic aperture radar data. ISCE inherits the core of the ROI_PAC interferometric tool, but contains improvements at all levels of the radar processing chain, including a modular and extensible architecture, new focusing approach, better geocoding of the data, handling of multi-polarization data, radiometric calibration, and estimation and correction of ionospheric effects. In this paper we describe the characteristics of ISCE with emphasis on the ionospheric modules. To detect ionospheric anomalies, ISCE implements the Faraday rotation method using quadpolarimetric images, and the split-spectrum technique using interferometric single-, dual- and quad-polarimetric images. The ability to generate co-registered time series of quad-polarimetric images makes ISCE also an ideal tool to be used for polarimetric-interferometric radar applications.

Ionosphere↗

NASA NTRS2013

Polarimetric and Multi-Doppler Radar Observations of Electrified and Unelectrified Wildfire Smoke Plumes

Pyrocumulus clouds above three Colorado wildfires (Hewlett Gulch, High Park, and Waldo Canyon; all occurred during summer 2012) electrified and produced small intracloud discharges whenever the smoke plumes grew to high altitudes (over 10 km above mean sea level, or MSL). This occurred during periods of rapid wildfire growth, as indicated by the shortwave infrared channel on a geostationary satellite, as well as by incident reports. In the Hewlett Gulch case, the fire growth led to increased updrafts within the plume, as inferred by multiple‐ Doppler radar syntheses, which led to the vertical development and subsequent electrification ‐ a life cycle as short as 30 minutes. The lightning, detected by a threedimensional lightning mapping network, was favored in high‐altitude regions (~10 km MSL) containing modest reflectivities (25 dBZ and lower), ~0 dB differential reflectivity, and reduced correlation coefficient (~0.6‐0.7). This indicated the likely presence of ice particles (crystals and aggregates, possibly rimed) mixed with ash. Though neither multiple‐Doppler nor polarimetric observations were available during the electrification of the High Park and Waldo Canyon plumes, their NEXRAD observations showed reflectivity structures consistent with Hewlett Gulch. In addition, polarimetric and multiple‐Doppler scanning of unelectrified High Park plumes indicated only irregularly shaped ash, and not ice, was present (i.e., reflectivities < 25 dBZ, differential reflectivity > 5 dB, correlation < 0.4), and there was no broaching of the 10 km altitude. Based on these results, the electrification likely was caused by ice‐based processes that did not involve significant amounts of graupel. The results demonstrate the scientific value of multiple‐Doppler and polarimetric radar observations of wildfire smoke plumes ‐ including the ability to distinguish between regions of pure hydrometeors, regions of pure ash, and mixtures of both ‐ and also suggest a possible new application for lightning data in monitoring wildfires.

Lang, Timothy J.↗

NASA NTRS2014

Very Large Rain Drops from 2D Video Disdrometers and Concomitant Polarimetric Radar Observations

Drop size distribution (DSD) measurements using ground-based disdrometers (point measurements) have often been used to derive equations to relate radar observations to the integral rainfall parameters (Atlas et al. 1999, Bringi et al., 2003, Kozu et al., 2006, Tokay and Short, 1996, Ajayi and Owolabi, 1987, Battan, 1973). Disdrometers such as JWD, MRR and several others have a major limitation in measuring drops with equi-volume diameters (D(sub eq)) larger than 5 mm because they often rely on the velocity-diameter relationship which plateaus beyond this diameter range (Atlas et al., 1973, Gunn & Kinzer, 1949). Other disdrometers such as Parsivel also lack accuracy beyond this diameter range. The 2D video disdrometer (2DVD: Schönhuber et al., 2008) on the other hand gives drop-shape contours and velocities for each individual drop/hydrometeor falling through its sensor area; this provides a unique opportunity to study the role of very-large drops on radar measurements in particular those with polarimetric radar capability where DSDs with a significant component of very large drops may require special consideration given that the differential reflectivity and other polarimetric radar parameters including attenuation-correction methods will be sensitive to the concentrations of these large drops. A recent study on the occurrence of large drops by Gatlin et al. (2014) has compiled a large and diverse set of measurements made with the 2D video disdrometers from many locations around the globe. Some of the largest drops found in this study were 9 mm D(sub eq) and larger, and in this paper, we report on three such events, with maximum D(sub eq's) of 9.0, 9.1 and 9.7 mm, which occurred in Colorado, Northern Alabama, and Oklahoma, respectively. Detailed examination of the 2DVD data - in terms of shapes and fall velocities - has confirmed that these are fully-melted hydrometeors, although for the last case in Oklahoma, a bigger and non-fully-melted hydrometeor was also observed. All three events were also captured by polarimetric radars, namely the S-band CHILL radar operated by Colorado State University (Brunkow et al., 2000), the C-band ARMOR radar (Petersen et al., 2007) operated by University of Alabama in Huntsville, and NEXRADKVNX, operated by the US National Weather Service, respectively. For the last event, several other radar observations were also made, including two X-band radars operated by the US Dept. of Energy. Analyses of 2DVD data in conjunction with the corresponding radar observations are presented, along with some discussion on sampling issues related to the measurements of such large rain drops. The latter is addressed using maximum diameter D(sub max) measurements from 1-minute DSDs using two collocated 2DVDs for 37 events in Huntsville.

Thurai, Merhala↗

NASA NTRS2013

Forest Structure Characterization Using JPL's UAVSAR Multi-Baseline Polarimetric SAR Interferometry and Tomography

This paper concerns forest remote sensing using JPL's multi-baseline polarimetric interferometric UAVSAR data. It presents exemplary results and analyzes the possibilities and limitations of using SAR Tomography and Polarimetric SAR Interferometry (PolInSAR) techniques for the estimation of forest structure. Performance and error indicators for the applicability and reliability of the used multi-baseline (MB) multi-temporal (MT) PolInSAR random volume over ground (RVoG) model are discussed. Experimental results are presented based on JPL's L-band repeat-pass polarimetric interferometric UAVSAR data over temperate and tropical forest biomes in the Harvard Forest, Massachusetts, and in the La Amistad Park, Panama and Costa Rica. The results are partially compared with ground field measurements and with air-borne LVIS lidar data.

UAVSAR (Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle SAR)↗

NASA NTRS2013

Forest Structure Characterization Using Jpl's UAVSAR Multi-Baseline Polarimetric SAR Interferometry and Tomography

remote sensing↗

NASA NTRS2018

Airborne and Shipborne Polarimetric Measurements over Open Ocean and Coastal Waters: Intercomparisons and Implications for Spaceborne Observations

Comprehensive polarimetric closure is demonstrated using observations from two in-situ polarimeters and Vector Radiative Transfer (VRT) modeling. During the Ship-Aircraft Bio-Optical Research (SABOR) campaign, the novel CCNY HyperSAS-POL polarimeter was mounted on the bow of the R/V Endeavor and acquired hyperspectral measurements from just above the surface of the ocean, while the NASA GISS Research Scanning Polarimeter was deployed onboard the NASA LaRC's King Air UC-12B aircraft. State-of-the-art, ancillary measurements were used to characterize the atmospheric and marine contributions in the VRT model, including those of the High Spectral Resolution Lidar (HSRL), the AErosol RObotic NETwork for Ocean Color (AERONET-OC), a profiling WETLabs ac-9 spectrometer and the Multi-spectral Volume Scattering Meter (MVSM). An open-ocean and a coastal scene are analyzed, both affected by complex aerosol conditions. In each of the two cases, it is found that the model is able to accurately reproduce the Stokes components measured simultaneously by each polarimeter at different geometries and viewing altitudes. These results are mostly encouraging, considering the different deployment strategies of RSP and HyperSAS-POL, which imply very different sensitivities to the atmospheric and ocean contributions, and open new opportunities in above-water polarimetric measurements. Furthermore, the signal originating from each scene was propagated to the top of the atmosphere to explore the sensitivity of polarimetric spaceborne observations to changes in the water type. As expected, adding polarization as a measurement capability benefits the detection of such changes, reinforcing the merits of the full-Stokes treatment in modeling the impact of atmospheric and oceanic constituents on remote sensing observations.

Matteo Ottaviani↗

NASA NTRS2018

Polarimetric Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Aerosols: Instruments, Methodologies, Results, and Perspectives

Polarimetry is one of the most promising types of remote sensing for improved characterization of atmospheric aerosol. Indeed, aerosol particles constitute a highly variable atmospheric component characterized by a large number of parameters describing particle sizes, morphologies (including shape and internal structure), absorption and scattering properties, amounts, horizontal and vertical distribution, etc. Reliable monitoring of all these parameters is very challenging, and therefore the aerosol effects on climate and environment are considered to be among the most uncertain factors in climate and environmental research. In this regard, observations that provide both the angular distribution of the scattered atmospheric radiation as well as its polarization state at multiple wavelengths covering the UV–SWIR spectral range carry substantial implicit information on the atmospheric composition. Therefore, high expectations in improving aerosol characterization are associated with detailed passive photopolarimetric observations. The critical need to use space-borne polarimetry for global accurate monitoring of detailed aerosol properties was first articulated in the late 1980s and early 1990s. By now, several orbital instruments have already provided polarization observations from space, and a number of advanced missions are scheduled for launch in the coming years by international and national space agencies. The first and most extensive record of polarimetric imagery was provided by POLDER-I, POLDER-II, and POLDER/PARASOL multi-angle multi-spectral polarization sensors. Polarimetric observations with the POLDER-like design intended for collecting extensive multi-angular multi-spectral measurements will be provided by several instruments, such as the MAI/TG-2, CAPI/TanSat, and DPC/GF-5 sensors recently launched by the Chinese Space Agency. Instruments such as the 3MI/MetOp-SG, MAIA, SpexOne and HARP2 on PACE, POSP, SMAC, PCF, DPC–Lidar, ScanPol and MSIP/Aerosol-UA, MAP/Copernicus CO2 Monitoring, etc. are planned to be launched by different space agencies in the coming decade. The concepts of these future instruments, their technical designs, and the accompanying algorithm development have been tested intensively and analyzed using diverse airborne prototypes. Certain polarimetric capabilities have also been implemented in such satellite sensors as GOME-2/MetOp and SGLI/GCOM-C.

Aerosols↗

NASA NTRS2016

PLANT: Polarimetric-Interferometric Lab and Analysis Tools for Ecosystem and Land-Cover Science and Applications

PLANT (Polarimetric-interferometric Lab and Analysis Tools) is a new collection of software tools developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to support processing and analysis of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data for ecosystem and land-cover/land-use change science and applications. PLANT inherits code components from the Interferometric Scientific Computing Environment (ISCE) to generate highresolution, coregistered polarimetric-interferometric SLC stacks from Level-0/1 data for a variety of airborne and spaceborne sensors. The goal is to provide the ecosystem and land-cover/land-use change communities with rigorous and efficient tools to perform multi-temporal, polarimetric and tomographic analyses in order to generate calibrated, geocoded and mosaicked Level-2 and Level-3 products (e.g.,maps of above-ground biomass and forest disturbance). In this paper we introduce the capabilities of PLANT and report first results obtained with the tools developed up to date.

Lavalle, Marco↗

NASA NTRS2020

Polarimetric Radar Characteristics of Simulated and Observed Intense Convective Cores for a Midlatitude Continental and Tropical Maritime Environment

This study contrasts midlatitude continental and tropical maritime deep convective cores using polarimetric radar observables and retrievals from selected deep convection episodes during the MC3E and TWPICE field campaigns. The continental convective cores produce stronger radar reflectivities throughout the profiles, while maritime convective cores produce more positive differential reflectivity Z(dr) and larger specific differential phase K(dp) above the melting level. Hydrometeor identification retrievals revealed the presence of large fractions of rimed ice particles (snow aggregates) in the continental (maritime) convective cores, consistent with the Z(dr) and K(dp) observations. The regional cloud-resolving model simulations with bulk and size-resolved bin microphysics are conducted for the selected cases, and the simulation outputs are converted into polarimetric radar signals and retrievals identical to the observational composites. Both the bulk and the bin microphysics reproduce realistic land and ocean (L-O) contrasts in reflectivity, polarimetric variables of rain drops, and hydrometeor profiles, but there are still large uncertainties in describing Zdr and Kdp of ice crystals associated with the ice particle shapes/orientation assumptions. Sensitivity experiments are conducted by swapping background aerosols between the continental and maritime environments, revealing that background aerosols play a role in shaping the distinct L-O contrasts in radar reflectivity associated with raindrop sizes, in addition to the dominant role of background thermodynamics.

Toshihisa Matsui↗

NASA NTRS1998

Polarimetric C-band SAR Observations of Sea Ice in the Greenland Sea

The fully polarimetric EMISAR acquired C-band radar signatures of sea ice in the Greenland Sea during a campaign in March 1995. We present maps of polarimetric signatures over an area containing various kinds of ice and discuss the use of polarimetric SAR for identification of ice types and their geophysical characteristics.

Polarimetry↗

NASA NTRS2021

Polarimetric sensitivity of light-absorbing carbonaceous aerosols over ocean: A theoretical assessment

Visible-light-absorbing carbonaceous aerosols within the boundary layer affect the radiance and polarization states of the radiation at the top of the atmosphere. Remote sensing from suborbital and satellite-based platforms utilizes these radiance and polarization signals to retrieve the key properties of these aerosols. Recent retrieval algorithms have shown a progressive trend toward including multi-angular and multi-spectral polarimetric measurements to produce better retrieval accuracy in comparison to those using measurements based on a single viewing angle. Here, we perform a theoretical investigation of the top of atmosphere (TOA) radiance-related reflectance factor (bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF)) and the two types of polarimetry-related factors (polarized bidirectional reflectance factor (pBRF) and the degree of linear polarization (DoLP)) for different types of atmospheric light-absorbing carbonaceous aerosols as a function of particle size distribution. We selected three polarimetric bands corresponding to those utilized by NASA's Airborne Multiangle SpectroPolarimetric Imager (AirMSPI)—near-UV (470 nm), visible (660 nm), and near-infrared (865 nm)—for our simulations which were performed over ocean surface using the successive order of scattering (SOS) algorithm coupled to a Lorenz-Mie aerosol optics model. The analysis of particle phase matrix elements indicates a close relationship between the angular dependencies of DoLP and associated phase matrix components at the shortest polarimetric band (470 nm). Using Jacobian analysis, we find that the radiance- and polarimetry-related reflectance factors of weakly light-absorbing aerosols, such as brown carbon, are more sensitive to changes in particle size and imaginary refractive index in comparison with those of black carbon, which is strongly light-absorbing. Our results suggest that the DoLP data could be used by future retrieval algorithms for reliably estimating microphysical properties of absorbing carbonaceous aerosols with imaginary refractive index less than 0.4.

refractive index↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Terrestrial Analogue Studies from ISRO’s Venus Mission Perspective: Polarimetric Radar Properties of Hawaiian Lava Flows

Detection of present and past volcanism on Venus is one of the major goals of the proposed ISRO’s Venus orbiter mission. The S-band, high-resolution (40 m/pixel) fully Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolSAR) instrument on this mission [1] may have the capabilities to detect volcanism within the mission lifetime using repeated PolSAR imagery, and possibly SAR Interferometry (InSAR, experimental mode). The global mapping efforts of Venus by Magellan mission has enabled comprehensive mapping of lava flows and indicated that Venus has an extensive history of volcanism, the ages of which are largely unknown (e.g. [2]). While Magellan radar emissivity data (e.g. [3, 4]) and Near Infrared emissivity data from VIRTIS [5] suggested the occurrence of recent episodes of volcanic activity (e.g. Maat Mons and Ganis Chasma), as well as the presence of stratigraphically young lava flows (e.g. Idunn Mons), measuring changes in radar backscatter amplitude alone to identify lava flows has many challenges. Although very large changes in the shape of the terrain can be observed in radar backscatter amplitude changes (e.g. [6]), smaller, or relatively flat lava flows are difficult to detect. Previous terrestrial studies suggest that PolSAR and InSAR techniques are very effective for mapping lava flows (e.g. [7-9]), and can be used when changes cannot be distinguished in radar backscatter images. We use the unvegetated lava flows on Hawaiʻi island as a terrestrial analogue to study Venus lava flows for the following reasons: (a) It is extensively studied at several wavelengths commonly used in remote sensing studies (including PolSAR and InSAR methods); and (b) it is a volcanically active area with new lava flows frequently covering older emplaced flows. To investigate the surface roughness, texture, and fine-grained mantling associated with Mauna Loa and Kilauea lava flows, we utilize C- and L-band PolSAR datasets obtained from RISAT-1A (EOS-4) and ALOS PALSAR missions respectively. In particular, we will use the quad-polarized backscatter and polarimetric parameters to characterize the texture of the terrestrial lava flows to understand whether the Venus crust is continuously disrupted during flow emplacement. While some previous studies (e.g. [10, 11]) suggested that surface roughness of most of the Venus flows is comparable to that of terrestrial pāhoehoe flows, other studies indicated that fractal dimensions of some large lava flows on Venus imply high eruption rates which favour the formation of a’a flows (e.g. [12]). We will also analyse the terrestrial flows for the presence/absence of pyroclastic mantling as radar-bright diffuse deposits near the summit regions of some coronae on Venus have been proposed to be young pyroclastics, and possible evidence of a renewed epoch of mantle volcanism that taps into deeper volatiles [13]. A recent study using EOS-4 RISAT-1 data of a part of fresh Mauna Loa lava flows (2022 eruption) emphasizes the ability of fully polarimetric SAR data to understand the diversity of physical properties (e.g. texture and morphology) associated with them (Sreejith et al. 2024); and we will apply similar methods to the PolSAR data obtained from ISRO’s Venus mission for our proposed objectives.

Sriram S Bhiravarasu↗

NASA NTRS2002

On the relationshop between polarimetric parameters and soil moisture

In this paper, we examine the relationship between polarimetric parameters and soil moisture. For example, the co-polarization ratio is independent of surface roughness to the first order of the small perturbation approximation. As surface roughness increases, it can be shown that the co-polarization ratio depends on the surface slope under the tilted Bragg approximation. The coupling of the surface roughness to the co-polarization ratio is theoretically investigated. An algorithm to compensate the surface slope effect will be discussed. We will also study other polarimetric parameters such as the average alpha angle and eigenvalues to understand their relationship with soil moisture.

polarimetric parameters soil moisture↗

NASA NTRS1993

Polarimetric Passive Remote Sensing of Wind-generated Sea Surfaces and Ocean Wind Vectors

This paper investigates the theory of polarimetric passive remote sensing of wind-generated sea surfaces. A two-scale polarimetric scattering and emission model of sea surfaces is developed to interpret existing active and passive remote sensing microwave signatures of sea surfaces, and to investigate the potential application of polarimetic radiometry to ocean surface winds.

Polarimetric Remote Sensing↗

NASA NTRS1998

Vegetation Structure from Polarimetric Interferometry

Polarimetric radar interferometry is much more sensitive to the distribution of oriented objects in a vegetated land surface than either polarimetry on interferometry alone. This paper shows that single-baseline polarimetric interferometry can be used to estimate vegetation heights and underlying topography, while at least two baselines are needed for randomly oriented volumes.

polarimetric radar interferometry vegetation topog↗