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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2001

Scramjet Tests in a Shock Tunnel at Flight Mach 7, 10, and 15 Conditions

Tests of the Hyper-X scramjet engine flowpath have been conducted in the HYPULSE shock tunnel at conditions duplicating the stagnation enthalpy at flight Mach 7, 10, and 15. For the tests at Mach 7 and 10 HYPULSE was operated as a reflected-shock tunnel; at the Mach 15 condition, HYPULSE was operated as a shock-expansion tunnel. The test conditions matched the stagnation enthalpy of a scramjet engine on an aerospace vehicle accelerating through the atmosphere along a 1000 psf dynamic pressure trajectory. Test parameter variation included fuel equivalence ratios from lean (0.8) to rich (1.5+); fuel composition from pure hydrogen to mixtures of 2% and 5% silane in hydrogen by volume; and inflow pressure and Mach number made by changing the scramjet model mounting angle in the HYPULSE test chamber. Data sources were wall pressures and heat flux distributions and schlieren and fuel plume imaging in the combustor/nozzle sections. Data are presented for calibration of the facility nozzles and the scramjet engine model. Comparisons of pressure distributions and flowpath streamtube performance estimates are made for the three Mach numbers tested.

Rogers, R. C.↗
NASA NTRS2001

Numerical Simulation of One- and Two-Phase Flows in Propulsion Systems

In this report, we present some results of problems investigated during joint research between the Hampton University Fluid Mechanics and Acoustics Laboratory (HU/FM&AL), NASA GRC, and the LaRC Hyper-X Program. This work is supported by joint research between the NASA GRC and the Institute of Mechanics at Moscow State University (IM/MSU) in Russia under a CRDF grant. The main areas of current scientific interest of the HU/FM&AL include an investigation of the proposed and patented advanced methods for aircraft engine thrust and noise benefits. These methods are based on nontraditional 3D corrugated and composite nozzle, inlet, propeller and screw designs such as a Bluebell and Telescope nozzle, Mobius-shaped screw, etc. This is the main subject of our other projects, of which one is presented at the current conference. Here we analyze additional methods for exhaust jet noise reduction without essential thrust loss and even with thrust augmentation. Such additional approaches are: (1) to add some solid, fluid, or gas mass at discrete locations to the main supersonic gas stream to minimize the negative influence of strong shock waves formed in propulsion systems. This mass addition may be accompanied by heat addition to the main stream as a result of the fuel combustion or by cooling of this stream as a result of the liquid mass evaporation and boiling; (2) Use of porous or permeable nozzles and additional shells at the nozzle exit for preliminary cooling of the hot jet exhaust and pressure compensation for off-design conditions (so-called continuous ejector with small mass flow rate); and (3) to propose and analyze new effective methods of fuel injection into the flow stream in air-breathing engines. The research is focused on a wide regime of problems in the propulsion field as well as in experimental testing and theoretical and numerical simulation analyses for advanced aircraft and rocket engines. The FM&AL Team uses analytical methods, numerical simulations, and experimental tests at the Hampton University campus, NASA, and IM/MSU. The main outcomes during this reporting period are: (1) Publications: The AIAA Paper #01-1893 has been accepted for the AIAA/NAL-NASDA-ISAS 10th International Space Planes and Hypersonic Systems and Technologies Conference, 24-27 April 2001, Kyoto, Japan. The AIAA Paper #01-3204 has been accepted for presentation at the 37th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference being held on 08-11 July, in Salt Lake City, UT; (2) Grants and proposals: The HU/FM&AL was awarded the NASA grant NAG3-2495 in October 2000 and the CRDF award was granted to the NASA GRC-HU FM&AL and IM/MSU (Russia) in July 2000. A solicited proposal was submitted for the NASA NRA-01GRC-02 competition and two unsolicited proposals to NASA are in preparation; (3) Theory and numerical simulations: Analytical theory, numerical simulation, comparison of theoretical with experimental results, and modification of theoretical approaches, models, grids, etc. Such investigations have been conducted for three main problems: (a) Combustion efficiency optimization in the half-duct combustor system; (b) Drag reduction effects for blunt bodies with solid needles; and (c) Solid particle injection from the butt-end against a supersonic flow. The NASA CFL3D, HU/FM&AL, and IM/MSU GODUNOV codes were used and modified for solution of these problems. The codes are based on full Euler and Navier-Stokes solvers with and without nonequilibrium oxygen-nitrogen and air-hydrogen chemical reactions in laminar and turbulent gas flow regimes; (4) Experimental tests: In the IM/MSU supersonic wind tunnel, experimental tests were conducted with different number, location, and geometric parameters of solid needles mounted at the front of the butt-end in supersonic flow. Optimal parameters were determined that provide minimal butt-end drag in the stationary flow regime. Experimental and numerical simulation results are in good agreement; (5) Student Research Activity: Involvement of one graduate and two undergraduate students as research assistants in the current project.

Gilinsky, Mikhail↗
NASA NTRS2002

Numerical Simulation of One- And Two-Phase Flows In Propulsion Systems

In this report, we present some results of problems investigated during joint research between the Hampton University (HU) Fluid Mechanics and Acoustics Laboratory (FM&AL), NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) and the Hyper-X Program of the NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC). This work is supported by joint research between the NASA GRC/HU FM&AL and the Institute of Mechanics at Moscow State University (IM/MSU) in Russia under a Civilian Research and Development Foundation (CRDF) grant, #RE1-2068. The main areas of current scientific interest of the FM&AL include an investigation of the proposed and patented advanced methods for aircraft engine thrust and noise benefits. These methods are based on nontraditional 3D (three dimensional) corrugated and composite nozzle, inlet, propeller and screw designs such as the Bluebell and Telescope nozzles, Mobius-shaped screws, etc. These are the main subject of our other projects, of which one is the NASA MURED's (Minority University Research and Education Division) FAR (Faculty Awards for Research) Award, #NAG-3-2249. Working jointly with this project team, our team also analyzes additional methods for exhaust jet noise reduction. These methods are without essential thrust loss and even with thrust augmentation. The research is focused on a wide regime of problems in the propulsion field as well as in experimental testing and theoretical and numerical simulation analyses for advanced aircraft and rocket engines. The FM&AL Team uses analytical methods, numerical simulations and experimental tests at the Hampton University campus, NASA and IM/MSU. The main results obtained by FM&AL team were published in the papers and patents.

Gilinsky, Mikhail M.↗
NASA NTRS2001

Parallelization of the Flow Field Dependent Variation Scheme for Solving the Triple Shock/Boundary Layer Interaction Problem

A parallelized version of the Flowfield Dependent Variation (FDV) Method is developed to analyze a problem of current research interest, the flowfield resulting from a triple shock/boundary layer interaction. Such flowfields are often encountered in the inlets of high speed air-breathing vehicles including the NASA Hyper-X research vehicle. In order to resolve the complex shock structure and to provide adequate resolution for boundary layer computations of the convective heat transfer from surfaces inside the inlet, models containing over 500,000 nodes are needed. Efficient parallelization of the computation is essential to achieving results in a timely manner. Results from a parallelization scheme, based upon multi-threading, as implemented on multiple processor supercomputers and workstations is presented.

Schunk, Richard Gregory↗
NASA NTRS2002

The Aircraft Simulation Role in Improving Flight Safety Through Control Room Training

NASA Dryden Flight Research Center uses its six-degrees-of-freedom (6-DOF) fixed-base simulations for mission control room training to improve flight safety and operations. This concept is applied to numerous flight projects such as the F-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle (HARV), the F-15 Intelligent Flight Control System (IFCS), the X-38 Actuator Control Test (XACT), and X-43A (Hyper-X). The Dryden 6-DOF simulations are typically used through various stages of a project, from design to ground tests. The roles of these simulations have expanded to support control room training, reinforcing flight safety by building control room staff proficiency. Real-time telemetry, radar, and video data are generated from flight vehicle simulation models. These data are used to drive the control room displays. Nominal static values are used to complete information where appropriate. Audio communication is also an integral part of training sessions. This simulation capability is used to train control room personnel and flight crew for nominal missions and emergency situations. Such training sessions are also opportunities to refine flight cards and control room display pages, exercise emergency procedures, and practice control room setup for the day of flight. This paper describes this technology as it is used in the X-43A and F-15 IFCS and XACT projects.

Shy, Karla S.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Arc Jet Results on Candidate High Temperature Coatings for NASA's NGLT Refractory Composite Leading Edge Task

In 2000, arc jet testing was conducted on thirteen material systems for possible use on the nose leading edge of the Hyper-X program s X-43A Mach 10 vehicle. Six material systems survived 3, 130- second cycles. To support NASA s Next Generation Launch Technology Programs (NGLT) need for passive refractory composite leading edges with multiple reuse capability at temperatures up to 3600 F, these six materials were subjected to an expanded arc jet test program. This expanded arc jet test program included three phases. The purpose of the first phase was to generate emissivity data as a function of temperature. The purpose of the second phase was to determine if the material systems had any thermal cycling durability, and the third phase was to determine whether the materials could survive an arc jet test of one hour duration. Some of the coating systems were found to have very low emissivities, suggesting that they would not be good candidates for leading edges coating. Other coating systems survived both the second and third phases of the test program and showed potential for use as an oxidation protection coating for leading edges. This presentation summarizes the test program results.

Ohlhorst, C. W.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Advanced Methods for Aircraft Engine Thrust and Noise Benefits: Nozzle-Inlet Flow Analysis

In this project on the first stage (2000-Ol), we continued to develop the previous joint research between the Fluid Mechanics and Acoustics Laboratory (FM&AL) at Hampton University (HU) and the Jet Noise Team (JNT) at the NASA Langley Research Center (NASA LaRC). At the second stage (2001-03), FM&AL team concentrated its efforts on solving of problems of interest to Glenn Research Center (NASA GRC), especially in the field of propulsion system enhancement. The NASA GRC R&D Directorate and LaRC Hyper-X Program specialists in a hypersonic technology jointly with the FM&AL staff conducted research on a wide region of problems in the propulsion field as well as in experimental testing and theoretical and numerical simulation analyses for advanced aircraft and rocket engines. The last year the Hampton University School of Engineering & Technology was awarded the NASA grant, for creation of the Aeropropulsion Center, and the FM&AL is a key team of the project fulfillment responsible for research in Aeropropulsion and Acoustics (Pillar I). This work is supported by joint research between the NASA GRC/ FM&AL and the Institute of Mechanics at Moscow State University (IMMSU) in Russia under a CRDF grant. The main areas of current scientific interest of the FM&AL include an investigation of the proposed and patented advanced methods for aircraft engine thrust and noise benefits. This is the main subject of our other projects, of which one is presented. The last year we concentrated our efforts to analyze three main problems: (a) new effective methods fuel injection into the flow stream in air-breathing engines; (b) new re-circulation method for mixing, heat transfer and combustion enhancement in propulsion systems and domestic industry application; (c) covexity flow The research is focused on a wide regime of problems in the propulsion field as well as in experimental testing and theoretical and numerical simulation analyses for advanced aircraft and rocket engines (see, for example, Figures 4). The FM&AL Team uses analytical methods, numerical simulations and experimental tests at the Hampton University campus, NASA and IM/MSU.

Morgan, Morris H., III↗
NASA NTRS2002

Numerical Simulation of One-and Two-Phase Flows in Propulsion Systems

In this report, we present some results of problems investigated during joint research between the Hampton University Fluid Mechanics and Acoustics Laboratory (FM&AL), NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) and the Hyper-X Program of the NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC). The main areas of current scientific interest of the FM&AL include an investigation of the proposed and patented advanced methods for aircraft engine thrust and noise benefits. These methods are based on nontraditional 3D corrugated and composite nozzle, inlet, propeller and screw designs such as the Bluebell and Telescope nozzles, Mobius-shaped screws, etc. These are the main subject of our other projects, of which one is the NASA MURED's FAR Award. Working jointly with this project team, our team also analyzes additional methods for exhaust jet noise reduction. These methods are without essential thrust loss and even with thrust augmentation.

Blankson, Isaiah M.↗
NASA NTRS1998

Langley Aerothermodynamic Facilities Complex: Enhancements and Testing Capabilities

Description, capabilities, recent upgrades, and utilization of the NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) Aerothermodynamic Facilities Complex (AFC) are presented. The AFC consists of five hypersonic, blow-down-to-vacuum wind tunnels that collectively provide a range of Mach number from 6 to 20, unit Reynolds number from 0.04 to 22 million per foot and, most importantly for blunt configurations, normal shock density ratio from 4 to 12. These wide ranges of hypersonic simulation parameters are due, in part, to the use of three different test gases (air, helium, and tetrafluoromethane), thereby making several of the facilities unique. The Complex represents nearly three-fourths of the conventional (as opposed to impulse)-type hypersonic wind tunnels operational in this country. AFC facilities are used to assess and optimize the hypersonic aerodynamic performance and aeroheating characteristics of aerospace vehicle concepts and to provide benchmark aerodynamic/aeroheating data fr generating the flight aerodynamic databook and final design of the thermal protection system (TPS) (e.g., establishment of flight limitations not to exceed TPS design limits). Modifications and enhancements of AFC hardware components and instrumentation have been pursued to increase capability, reliability, and productivity in support of programmatic goals. Examples illustrating facility utilization in recent years to generate essentially all of the experimental hypersonic aerodynamic and aeroheating information for high-priority, fast-paced Agency programs are presented. These programs include Phase I of the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) Advanced Technology Demonstrator, X-33 program, PHase II of the X-33 program, X-34 program, the Hyper-X program ( a Mach 5,7, and 10 airbreathing propulsion flight experiment), and the X-38 program (Experimental Crew Return Vehicle, X-CRV). Current upgrades/enchancements and future plans for the AFC are discussed.

Micol, J. R.↗
NASA NTRS1998

Aerothermodynamic Flight Simulation Capabilities for Aerospace Vehicles

Aerothermodynamics, encompassing aerodynamics, aeroheating, and fluid dynamics and physical processes, is the genesis for the design and development of advanced space transportation vehicles and provides crucial information to other disciplines such as structures, materials, propulsion, avionics, and guidance, navigation and control. Sources of aerothermodynamic information are ground-based facilities, Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) and engineering computer codes, and flight experiments. Utilization of this aerothermodynamic triad provides the optimum aerothermodynamic design to safely satisfy mission requirements while reducing design conservatism, risk and cost. The iterative aerothermodynamic process for initial screening/assessment of aerospace vehicle concepts, optimization of aerolines to achieve/exceed mission requirements, and benchmark studies for final design and establishment of the flight data book are reviewed. Aerothermodynamic methodology centered on synergism between ground-based testing and CFD predictions is discussed for various flow regimes encountered by a vehicle entering the Earth s atmosphere from low Earth orbit. An overview of the resources/infrastructure required to provide accurate/creditable aerothermodynamic information in a timely manner is presented. Impacts on Langley s aerothermodynamic capabilities due to recent programmatic changes such as Center reorganization, downsizing, outsourcing, industry (as opposed to NASA) led programs, and so forth are discussed. Sample applications of these capabilities to high Agency priority, fast-paced programs such as Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV)/X-33 Phases I and 11, X-34, Hyper-X and X-38 are presented and lessons learned discussed. Lastly, enhancements in ground-based testing/CFD capabilities necessary to partially/fully satisfy future requirements are addressed.

Miller, Charles G.↗
NASA NTRS1998

Dual Mode Shock-Expansion/Reflected-Shock Tunnel

NASA s HYPULSE facility at GASL has been reconfigured to permit free jet testing of the Hyper-X flowpath at flight Mach numbers of 7 and 10. Among the required changes are addition of a converging-diverging nozzle to permit operation in a reflected shock tunnel mode, a 7 ft. diameter test cabin and a 30 in. diameter contoured nozzle. However, none of these changes were allowed to interfere with rapid recovery of the prior shock-expansion tunnel mode of operation, and indeed certain changes should enhance facility usefulness and productivity in either mode. A previously-developed shock-induced detonation mode of driving the facility has been successfully applied to both reflected shock tunnel operation at Mach 10 flight conditions, with tailored interface operation, and shock-expansion tunnel operation at flight conditions corresponding to Mach numbers from 12 to 25. Tailored interface operation at Mach 7 has been achieved with an unheated helium driver. In the present paper, the rationale for a dual mode shock expansion/reflected shock tunnel is discussed, and the capabilities and limitations for each mode are outlined. The physical changes in the HYPULSE facility to achieve dual mode capability are also described. Limited calibration data obtained to date in the new reflected shock tunnel mode are presented and the anticipated flight simulation map with dual mode operation is also outlined.

Erdos, John I.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Modeling Compressibility Effects in High-Speed Turbulent Flows

Man has strived to make objects fly faster, first from subsonic to supersonic and then to hypersonic speeds. Spacecraft and high-speed missiles routinely fly at hypersonic Mach numbers, M greater than 5. In defense applications, aircraft reach hypersonic speeds at high altitude and so may civilian aircraft in the future. Hypersonic flight, while presenting opportunities, has formidable challenges that have spurred vigorous research and development, mainly by NASA and the Air Force in the USA. Although NASP, the premier hypersonic concept of the eighties and early nineties, did not lead to flight demonstration, much basic research and technology development was possible. There is renewed interest in supersonic and hypersonic flight with the HyTech program of the Air Force and the Hyper-X program at NASA being examples of current thrusts in the field. At high-subsonic to supersonic speeds, fluid compressibility becomes increasingly important in the turbulent boundary layers and shear layers associated with the flow around aerospace vehicles. Changes in thermodynamic variables: density, temperature and pressure, interact strongly with the underlying vortical, turbulent flow. The ensuing changes to the flow may be qualitative such as shocks which have no incompressible counterpart, or quantitative such as the reduction of skin friction with Mach number, large heat transfer rates due to viscous heating, and the dramatic reduction of fuel/oxidant mixing at high convective Mach number. The peculiarities of compressible turbulence, so-called compressibility effects, have been reviewed by Fernholz and Finley. Predictions of aerodynamic performance in high-speed applications require accurate computational modeling of these "compressibility effects" on turbulence. During the course of the project we have made fundamental advances in modeling the pressure-strain correlation and developed a code to evaluate alternate turbulence models in the compressible shear layer.

Sarkar, S.↗
NASA NTRS2005

Scramjet Development Tests Supporting the Mach 10 Flight of the X-43

The Hyper-X Project s successful third flight of the X-43 at near Mach 10 in 2004 proved the potential for airbreathing propulsion at hypersonic speeds. The engine flowpath used in the X-43 research vehicle was developed and evaluated in a systematic series of ground tests in the NASA HyPulse Shock Tunnel at conditions duplicating Mach 10 flight using a full scale height, partial width engine model of the flight engine. Tests were conducted over a range of equivalence ratios from 0.8 to 1.6 using hydrogen and a mixture of two-percent silane in hydrogen fuels. Silane gas was used as an ignition aid during the short duration of the pulse facility tests. Variation of the engine inflow conditions, pressure, temperature, and Mach number, were parametrically varied during the test entries to broaden the database over the expected uncertainty in the flight conditions. A review of the ground test technique and comparisons of the ground test pressures along with selected flight data are presented.

Rogers, R. C.↗
NASA NTRS2005

X-43A Fluid and Environmental Systems: Ground and Flight Operation and Lessons Learned

The X-43A Hyper-X program demonstrated the first successful flights of an airframe integrated scramjet powered hypersonic vehicle. The X-43A vehicles established successive world records for jet-powered vehicles at speeds of Mach 7 and Mach 10. The X-43A vehicle is a subscale version of proposed hypersonic reconnaissance strike aircraft. Scaled down to a length of 12 ft (3.66 m), the lifting body design with high fineness ratio resulted in very small internal space available for fluid systems and their corresponding environmental conditioning systems. Safe testing and operation of the X-43A fluid and environmental systems was critical for mission success, not only for the safety of the flight crew in the NASA B-52B carrier aircraft, but also to maintain the reliability of vehicle systems while exposed to dynamics and hostile conditions encountered during the boost trajectory. The X-43A fluid and environmental systems successfully managed explosive, pyrophoric, inert, and very high pressure gases without incident. This report presents a summary of the checkout and flight validation of the X-43A fluid systems. The testing used for mission assurance is summarized. System performance during captive carry and launch flights is presented. The lessons learned are also discussed.

Vachon, Michael Jacob↗
NASA NTRS2005

Development of X-43A Mach 10 Leading Edges

The nose leading edge of the Hyper-X Mach 10 vehicle was orginally anticipated to reach temperatures near 4000 F at the leading-edge stagnation line. A SiC coated carbon/carbon (C/C) leading-edge material will not survive that extreme temperature for even a short duration single flight. To identify a suitable leading edge for the Mach 10 vehicle, arc-jet testing was performed on thirteen leading-edge segments fabricated from different material systems to evaluate their performance in a simulated flight environment. Hf, Zr, Si, and Ir based materials, in most cases as a coating on C/C, were included in the evaluation. Afterwards, MER, Tucson, AZ was selected as the supplier of the flight vehicle leading edges. The nose and the vertical and horizontal tail leading edges were fabricated out of a 3:1 biased high thermal conductivity C/C. The leading edges were coated with a three layer coating comprised of a SiC conversion of the top surface of the C/C, followed by a chemical vapor deposited layer of SiC, followed by a thin chemical vapor deposited layer of HfC. This paper will describe the fabrication of the Mach 10 C/C leading edges and the testing performed to validate performance.

Ohlhorst, Craig W.↗
NASA NTRS2006

X-43A Flight Controls

A viewgraph presentation detailing X-43A Flight controls at NASA Dryden Flight Research Center is shown. The topics include: 1) NASA Dryden, Overview and current and recent flight test programs; 2) Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar (UAVSAR) Program, Program Overview and Platform Precision Autopilot; and 3) Hyper-X Program, Program Overview, X-43A Flight Controls and Flight Results.

Baumann, Ethan↗
NASA NTRS2006

Flight-Test-Determined Aerodynamic Force and Moment Characteristics of the X-43A at Mach 7.0

The second flight of the Hyper-X program afforded a unique opportunity to determine the aerodynamic force and moment characteristics of an airframe-integrated scramjet-powered aircraft in hypersonic flight. These data were gathered via a repeated series of pitch, yaw, and roll doublets; frequency sweeps; and pushover-pullup maneuvers performed throughout the X-43A cowl-closed descent. Maneuvers were conducted at Mach numbers of 6.80 to 0.95 and altitudes from 92,000 ft msl to sea level. The dynamic pressure varied from 1300 psf to 400 psf with the angle of attack ranging from 0 deg to 14 deg. The flight-extracted aerodynamics were compared with preflight predictions based on wind-tunnel-test data. The X-43A flight-derived axial force was found to be 10 percent to 15 percent higher than prediction. Under-predictions of similar magnitude were observed for the normal force. For Mach numbers above 4.0, the flight-derived stability and control characteristics resulted in larger-than-predicted static margins, with the largest discrepancy approximately 5 in. forward along the x-axis center of gravity at Mach 6.0. This condition would result in less static margin in pitch. The predicted lateral-directional stability and control characteristics matched well with flight data when allowance was made for the high uncertainty in angle of sideslip.

Davis. Marl C.↗
NASA NTRS2006

Flight Test Determined Aerodynamics Force and Moment Characteristics of the X-43A Research Vehicle at Mach 7.0

The second flight of the HYPER-X Program afforded a unique opportunity to determine the aerodynamic force and moment characteristics of an airframe integrated scramjet powered aircraft in hypersonic flight. These data were gathered via a repeated series of pitch, yaw, and roll doublets, frequency sweeps, and pull-up/push-over maneuvers performed throughout the X-43A cowl-closed descent phase. The subject flight research maneuvers were conducted in a Mach number range of 6.8 to 0.95 at altitudes from 92,000 ft to sea level. In this flight regime, the dynamic pressure varied from 1300 psf to 400 psf with angle-of-attack ranging from 0 deg to 14 deg. The flight-extracted aerodynamics were compared with pre-flight predictions based on wind tunnel test data. The X-43A flight-derived axial force was found to be 10 to 15 percent higher than prediction. Under-predictions of similar magnitude were observed for the normal force. For Mach numbers greater than 4, the X-43A flight-derived stability and control characteristics resulted in larger than predicted static margins, with the largest discrepancy approximately 5-inches forward along the X(CG) at Mach 6. This would result in less static margin in pitch. The X-43A predicted lateral-directional stability and control characteristics matched well with flight data when allowance was made for the high uncertainty in angle-of-sideslip.

Davis, Mark C.↗