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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2026

Characterizing the subglacial environment of lower Thwaites Glacier using radar modeling

Understanding the spatial heterogeneity beneath Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica, is vital to projecting its impact on future sea levels. Radar-echo sounding (RES) is commonly used to infer subglacial conditions, but these data can be challenging to interpret. We assess basal heterogeneity across Thwaites Glacier by comparing RES returns to a radar backscattering simulator for over 400 km of RES data. The modeled variations in bed returned power exhibited a strong correlation with actual RES data in 40% of our simulated flight segments, which we consider evidence for a relatively homogeneous glacier bed. Other sites (40%) demonstrated improved fit quality when hydrology or substrate transitions were introduced in the bed material model. The remaining simulated segments (20%) were diagnosed as having more complex basal heterogeneity. The spatial distribution of complex heterogeneity appears to coincide with asymmetric patterns in the RES specularity content, which has been interpreted in previous studies as a signature for channelized hydrology. Conversely, the homogeneous substrate locations coincide with areas of fast-moving ice in western Thwaites. Our simulation method can isolate power variations induced by material heterogeneity vs topography, which is an important limitation of existing RES analysis methods.

Antarctic glaciology↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Plume Impingement Software Module for Real-Time Proximity Operations

Successfully executing proximity operations in space, such as docking or in-orbit servicing, requires sophisticated spacecraft design that accounts for induced environments. As a chaser vehicle’s attitude control thrusters fire, they create rarefied plumes that can impact the target vehicle, with the potential to overload components, exceed thermal limits, and spin the target vehicle out of control. High-fidelity simulations of the thruster plume impingement environment require the direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method, but DSMC is too computationally expensive to simulate proximity operations that involve thousands of thruster firings. For this analysis to be tractable, engineering models of the plume flowfield and impingement events are used to simulate these trajectories [1]. Currently, on-orbit plume impingement environments are modeled through an inefficient open-loop analysis cycle where the vehicle’s flight controller and plume impingement teams iterate on the trajectories until they pass the target vehicle’s plume requirements. As complex on-orbit missions evolve and become more frequent, lengthy design cycles will become operational bottlenecks. To address this gap, this work develops an advanced plume impingement module capable of operating at real-time scale that can be integrated with existing mission planning tools and onboard flight systems. The plume module leverages state-of-the-art plume simulation techniques [2] to deliver fast, physics-based impingement predictions in a software architecture that can be tailored to diverse proximity operations scenarios. A prototype of this plume impingement module is built to demonstrate the feasibility of real-time performance. This prototype completes plume impingement calculations in microseconds per target geometry mesh point. The software serves as a foundational capability for plume-aware trajectory design, operational risk assessment, and future autonomous decision-making systems.

Plume Impingement↗
NASA NTRS2026

xEMU Spacesuit Boot Lunar South Pole Thermal Vacuum Testing

The Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) spacesuit lunar boot was evaluated in the Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) CITADEL thermal vacuum chamber at lunar South Pole conditions. The JPL CITADEL chamber provides a radiation environment and contact plate temperature of 48K, simulating the temperature of a lunar Permanently Shadowed Region (PSR) at the South Pole of the Moon. The main objectives of the test series are: to evaluate the risk lunar PSRs pose to advanced spacesuit boots, validate the xEMU lunar boot thermal model, and to develop a test methodology to evaluate lunar spacesuit boots. To simulate the thermal effects of a crewmember’s foot inside the boot, a thermal manikin foot was developed to inject heat into the spacesuit boot. Thermal data was collected through a variety of sensors including thermocouples, thermistors, heat flux sensors, and infrared cameras. A test matrix was developed to investigate the variables of foot contact force, simulated skin temperature, external contact plate temperature, and ventilation flowrate. The JPL CITADEL chamber includes a loadlock (airlock) that afforded the ability to simulate the transition of the boot from a thermally neutral IVA condition to a cold EVA condition within seconds. This paper will document the test design, test objectives, success criteria, test support equipment, spacesuit boot to chamber interfaces, and configuration of the test article. Additionally, this paper will document the high-level results of the testing. More detailed test results will be presented in a different paper.

Ben Swartout↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Investigation of Lunar-Inspired Geopolymer Concrete Formulations Mixed and Cured in Microgravity on the International Space Station (ISS)

The research outlined in this presentation investigates the use of various lunar regolith simulants in geopolymer lunar concrete mixes mixed and cured on the International Space Station (ISS). The motivation for this work is to study the effects of gravity on the microstructure of alkali-activated materials cured with heat, and to develop materials for the construction of long-term infrastructure on the lunar surface with in-situ resource utilization (ISRU). ISRU for construction materials reduces the cost and mass of payloads related to lunar construction. The advantage of geopolymer concrete as opposed to traditional portland cement concrete is that water acts as a medium for the polymerization reaction and leaves the system throughout the process, reducing its demand. Twelve samples of lunar regolith simulant and a solution composed of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate were sent to the ISS. The three simulants were OPRH2N, OPRL2N, and JSC-1AF, using only particles less than 53 µm in diameter to increase reactivity of the simulant. Simulant to solution ratios were determined by workability while mixing. The simulant and solution were sealed Burst Pouches® along with 2 other sealed bags to prevent material from leaking. Crew member F-14 conducted testing on the ISS by introducing the solution to the simulant in the Burst Pouch®, mixing the sample with a spatula, and then clamping the specimen in the fresh state to prevent flow inside the Burst Pouch®. These specimens were then put in a thermos heated to 80C via sealed drinking water bags to cure for 24 hours with a temperature logger. The cured specimens remained in microgravity for at least 28 days and were returned from the ISS in February 2025. The specimens were then brought to the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to analyze. Material characterization consisted of conducting Micro-CT tests of entire samples in their sealed apparatus to a resolution of 25µm. 2D image slices were saved in each orthogonal direction of each specimen at a 0.03 mm step size from the 3D model to conduct analytical porosity calculations. Representative samples from each specimen were sampled to perform helium gas pycnometery and were then mounted in resin for SEM imaging, EDS, and nanoindentation. Porosity was analyzed analytically using micromechanics modelling with the assistance of the NASA Multiscale Analysis Tool (NASMAT), as well as the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) servers (V. Saseendran & N. Yamamoto, 2024). Density was measured using helium gas pycnometery and was then compared to the theoretical density for experimental porosity calculation. Due to the samples’ non-uniform shape being cured in a pouch, traditional compression and tensile strength testing could not be performed. Nanoindentation was conducted at Clarkson University to determine the microhardness and reduced modulus of elasticity. Results from flight samples can be compared to ground samples currently in DLR’s possession to determine the effect on microstructure from being mixed and cured in microgravity. This study gives further insight and understanding of geopolymer lunar concrete and its viability as a lunar construction material with ISRU.

Adam Johnson↗
NASA NTRS2026

xEMU Spacesuit Boot Lunar South Pole Thermal Vacuum Testing

The Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) spacesuit lunar boot was evaluated in the Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) CITADEL thermal vacuum chamber at lunar South Pole conditions. The JPL CITADEL chamber provides a radiation environment and contact plate temperature of 48K, simulating the temperature of a lunar Permanently Shadowed Region (PSR) at the South Pole of the Moon. The main objectives of the test series were: to evaluate the risk lunar PSRs pose to advanced spacesuit boots, validate the xEMU lunar boot thermal model, and develop a test methodology to evaluate lunar spacesuit boots. To simulate the thermal effects of a crewmember’s foot inside the boot, a thermal manikin foot was developed to inject heat into the spacesuit boot. Thermal data was collected through a variety of sensors including thermocouples, thermistors, heat flux sensors, and infrared cameras. A test matrix was developed to investigate the variables of foot contact force, simulated skin temperature, external contact plate temperature, and ventilation flowrate. The JPL CITADEL chamber includes a loadlock (airlock) that afforded the ability to simulate the transition of the boot from a thermally neutral IVA condition to a cold EVA condition within seconds. This paper will document the test design, test objectives, success criteria, test support equipment, spacesuit boot to chamber interfaces, and configuration of the test article. Additionally, this paper will document the high-level results of the testing. More detailed test results will be presented in a different paper.

TVAC↗
NASA NTRS1989

Nickel cadmium battery performance modelling

The development of a model to predict cell/battery behavior given databases of temperature is described. The model accommodates batteries of various structural as well as thermal designs. Cell internal design modifications can be accommodated as long as the databases reflect the cell's performance characteristics. Operational parameters can be varied to simulate any number of charge or discharge methods under any orbital regime. The flexibility of the model stems from the broad scope of input variables and allows the prediction of battery performance under simulated mission or test conditions.

Clark, K.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Advanced Materials for the Lunar Surface: Multiscale Computational Design of Refractory Alloys and Carbides

Emerging operational environments, such as the lunar surface, present novel challenges for NASA and drive the need for advanced materials in applications like fission surface power systems. To address these demands, computational materials science is rapidly evolving to augment or replace costly and hazardous empirical testing. Although materials selection at NASA remains predominantly experimentally driven, advanced simulation methodologies are being steadily integrated into the engineering lifecycle. This work details the application of multiscale simulation techniques—including first-principles calculations, CALPHAD, dislocation dynamics, and molecular dynamics—at NASA's Ames Research Center to evaluate advanced materials for extreme environments. First, we present contributions to the Space Nuclear Propulsion Project. Be-cause propellant channel coatings in nuclear thermal rockets must withstand high-pressure, high-temperature hydro-gen, optimizing these materials is critical. First-principles calculations were employed to establish a rigorous quantitative and qualitative understanding of the behavior of the refractory carbides ZrC, NbC, and their mixtures in high-enthalpy hydrogen environments. This necessitated the generation of high-fidelity thermodynamic models for both stoichiometric and carbon-depleted carbides, both with and without the presence of hydrogen. Furthermore, we highlight efforts under the Refractory Alloy Additive Manufacturing Build Optimization (RAAMBO) project, where existing and novel alloy compositions were assessed for additive manufacturing printability and subsequent performance in applications such as heat pipes and rocket nozzle extensions. This was accomplished through a comprehensive multiscale simulation framework that bridged the gap from the nanometer to the millimeter scale. Across both initiatives, rigorous validation against empirical data was prioritized. By systematically employing a verified and validated computational frame-work, we demonstrate how simulation effectively supports multidisciplinary engineering efforts, builds project-wide confidence, and drives critical materials development.

computational materials↗
NASA NTRS1991

Hubble Space Telescope nickel-hydrogen flight spare battery test

For several years, MSFC has been engaged in a series of battery tests in support of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Program. Now that the HST is in orbit, many of these tests will continue in order to give those responsible for the HST a reasonable prediction on the performance of the flight batteries. These tests will also be a source of needed low earth orbit (LEO) data for nickel hydrogen (Ni-H2) batteries and cells. One of the tests currently in progress at MSFC is a mission simulation test on a 22-cell Ni-H2 battery. This battery is composed of spare cells taken from the lot of cells out of which the Flight Spare Module was assembled. This module is one of two modules launched on the HST. This battery has been on test since Jun. 1989 and has completed nearly 8000 LEO cycles. A series of characterization tests were run prior to the start of the mission simulation and a launch scenario test was run in Feb. and Mar. 1990 to test the behavior of the cells through a simulated launch. The results from these tests as well as the overall performance of the battery as it continues to cycle are reported.

Brewer, Jeffrey C.↗
NASA NTRS2026

The Role of Disruptive Impacts on Ocean Generation and Longevity in Icy Moons

Among icy moons of the outer Solar System, subsurface water oceans and large collisions both seem to be common, but the impact of the latter on the presence and persistence of the former is unclear and has rarely been investigated. Here we interface a smoothed-particle hydrodynamics model to simulate collisions with a thermal-structural evolution model to simulate the evolution of moons pre-collision, post-collision and without a collision. Overall, even such large-scale collisions affect only the ocean thickness or longevity, and the presence or absence of an ocean is affected for only a part of a moon’s history. In reaccreted moons, the ocean survives the impact and becomes much thicker inside larger moons with radius near 1,000 km, whereas an ocean that would otherwise arise inside moons with radius near 500 km is absent because the collision promotes ice–rock differentiation. Our simulations have not yielded an ocean developed post-impact—whether directly via collisional or reaccretional heating or indirectly through tidal heating due to collision-induced orbital changes—in a moon that would otherwise have remained frozen. The ocean-enhancing effect is pronounced only for late disruptive impacts onto large, 1,000-km-class targets, which are unlikely in recent solar system history.

Marc Neveu↗
NASA NTRS1990

A Laboratory Breadboard System for Dual-Arm Teleoperation

The computing architecture of a novel dual-arm teleoperation system is described. The novelty of this system is that: (1) the master arm is not a replica of the slave arm; it is unspecific to any manipulator and can be used for the control of various robot arms with software modifications; and (2) the force feedback to the general purpose master arm is derived from force-torque sensor data originating from the slave hand. The computing architecture of this breadboard system is a fully synchronized pipeline with unique methods for data handling, communication and mathematical transformations. The computing system is modular, thus inherently extendable. The local control loops at both sites operate at 100 Hz rate, and the end-to-end bilateral (force-reflecting) control loop operates at 200 Hz rate, each loop without interpolation. This provides high-fidelity control. This end-to-end system elevates teleoperation to a new level of capabilities via the use of sensors, microprocessors, novel electronics, and real-time graphics displays. A description is given of a graphic simulation system connected to the dual-arm teleoperation breadboard system. High-fidelity graphic simulation of a telerobot (called Phantom Robot) is used for preview and predictive displays for planning and for real-time control under several seconds communication time delay conditions. High fidelity graphic simulation is obtained by using appropriate calibration techniques.

A K Bejczy↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A GPU-based Approach for Turbomachinery Application

Accurate modeling of coolant airflows, which form protective films over turbine blades, is essential for designing fuel-efficient and environmentally sustainable gas turbine engines. Excessive coolant reduces thermal efficiency, while insufficient coolant leads to blade overheating and causes damage. Therefore, precise prediction of flow field interactions with cooling air is critical for optimizing turbine performance. This study numerically investigates the cooling effectiveness of purge and film cooling flows within a high-pressure turbine (HPT) rotor using Large Eddy Simulation (LES). The study utilizes NASA Glenn Research Center’s Glenn-HT solver. The simulation models ethe conditions of the Penn State University START rotating rig. A high-fidelity structured mesh comprising up to 800 million cells is employed to resolve high-Reynolds number flow (Re ≈ 350,000) and to capture intricate secondary flow structures, including tip leakage and purge-induced vortices. Film cooling effectiveness computations are highly sensitive to boundary conditions at the cooling holes and to grid resolution. Even with well-resolved grids and included plena, strong mixing challenges traditional eddy viscosity models. To address this, a simplified configuration is simulated: a truncated row of shaped holes on the suction side near the leading edge and a row on the pressure side, both fed from internal plena while the purge slot and tip clearance are also modeled. Two isothermal LES cases are conducted at two distinct wall temperatures, which yield the adiabatic wall temperature and the heat transfer coefficient. The definition and means of computation of the effectiveness is discussed in this paper. The simulations reveal detailed three-dimensional unsteady flow features, including coherent vortical structures and secondary flows originating from the purge cavity. Film cooling effectiveness and Nusselt number distributions are presented for both the blade surface and tip, highlighting regions of elevated heat transfer and complex thermal behavior. These findings underscore the importance of high-resolution LES and realistic boundary conditions in capturing the dynamics of purge and film cooling, offering valuable insights for improving turbine blade design and thermal management strategies.

Gas Turbine↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

LES-Based Analysis of Film Cooling in a High-Pressure Turbine Rotor Including Effects of Purge and Tip Flow

Accurate modeling of coolant airflows, which form protective films over turbine blades, is essential for designing fuel-efficient and environmentally sustainable gas turbine engines. Excessive coolant reduces thermal efficiency, while insufficient coolant leads to blade overheating and causes damage. Therefore, precise prediction of flow field interactions with cooling air is critical for optimizing turbine performance. This study numerically investigates the cooling effectiveness of purge and film cooling flows within a high-pressure turbine (HPT) rotor using Large Eddy Simulation (LES). The study utilizes NASA Glenn Research Center’s Glenn-HT solver. The simulation models ethe conditions of the Penn State University START rotating rig. A high-fidelity structured mesh comprising up to 800 million cells is employed to resolve high-Reynolds number flow (Re ≈ 350,000) and to capture intricate secondary flow structures, including tip leakage and purge-induced vortices. Film cooling effectiveness computations are highly sensitive to boundary conditions at the cooling holes and to grid resolution. Even with well-resolved grids and included plena, strong mixing challenges traditional eddy viscosity models. To address this, a simplified configuration is simulated: a truncated row of shaped holes on the suction side near the leading edge and a row on the pressure side, both fed from internal plena while the purge slot and tip clearance are also modeled. Two isothermal LES cases are conducted at two distinct wall temperatures, which yield the adiabatic wall temperature and the heat transfer coefficient. The definition and means of computation of the effectiveness is discussed in this paper. The simulations reveal detailed three-dimensional unsteady flow features, including coherent vortical structures and secondary flows originating from the purge cavity. Film cooling effectiveness and Nusselt number distributions are presented for both the blade surface and tip, highlighting regions of elevated heat transfer and complex thermal behavior. These findings underscore the importance of high-resolution LES and realistic boundary conditions in capturing the dynamics of purge and film cooling, offering valuable insights for improving turbine blade design and thermal management strategies.

Secondary Flows↗
NASA NTRS2026

The Canadian Galactic Emission Mapper: A New 8-10 GHz Telescope To Map the Polarization of the Northern Sky

The Canadian Galactic Emission Mapper (CGEM) radio telescope is mapping polarized Galactic foregrounds from 8-10 GHz to aid in the search for B-modes in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). Here we describe the design and early on-sky characterization of the CGEM optics. CGEM employs an on-axis, hat feed optical design that is a body of revolution (BOR) and exhibits excellent intrinsic polarization purity. We describe how we have optimized the optics with a novel framework that can directly minimize simulated intensity to polarized intensity (T → P) leakage in angular power spectrum space. The optimized optics exhibit simulated T → P leakage that is orders of magnitude below anticipated CℓBB for r = 10 −3 when scaled from 8-10 GHz to the CMB observing window near 95 GHz. We go on to describe the mechanical design of the optics, including a novel secondary mirror support made from Astroquartz composite that has low loss, low dielectric constant, and preserves the BOR symmetry of the optics. We then showcase the early on-sky performance of the optics with observations of the Sun and satellites, which probe the beam to 40dB down from the peak. A beam model for the deployed CGEM optics based on electromagnetic simulations is in excellent agreement with the on-sky data.

cosmic microwave background↗
NASA NTRS1992

Monte Carlo modeling of atomic oxygen attack of polymers with protective coatings on LDEF

Characterization of the behavior of atomic oxygen interaction with materials on the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) will assist in understanding the mechanisms involved, and will lead to improved reliability in predicting in-space durability of materials based on ground laboratory testing. A computational simulation of atomic oxygen interaction with protected polymers was developed using Monte Carlo techniques. Through the use of assumed mechanistic behavior of atomic oxygen and results of both ground laboratory and LDEF data, a predictive Monte Carlo model was developed which simulates the oxidation processes that occur on polymers with applied protective coatings that have defects. The use of high atomic oxygen fluence-directed ram LDEF results has enabled mechanistic implications to be made by adjusting Monte Carlo modeling assumptions to match observed results based on scanning electron microscopy. Modeling assumptions, implications, and predictions are presented, along with comparison of observed ground laboratory and LDEF results.

Bruce A. Banks↗
NASA NTRS1982

Spacecraft thermal balance testing using infrared sources

A thermal balance test (controlled flux intensity) on a simple black dummy spacecraft using IR lamps was performed and evaluated, the latter being aimed specifically at thermal mathematical model (TMM) verification. For reference purposes the model was also subjected to a solar simulation test (SST). The results show that the temperature distributions measured during IR testing for two different model attitudes under steady state conditions are reproducible with a TMM. The TMM test data correlation is not as accurate for IRT as for SST. Using the standard deviation of the temperature difference distribution (analysis minus test) the SST data correlation is better by a factor of 1.8 to 2.5. The lower figure applies to the measured and the higher to the computer-generated IR flux intensity distribution. Techniques of lamp power control are presented. A continuing work program is described which is aimed at quantifying the differences between solar simulation and infrared techniques for a model representing the thermal radiating surfaces of a large communications spacecraft.

G. B. T. Tan↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Multiscale Modeling of Fracture Strength in Fibrous Thermal Protection System Materials

This work presents a multiscale modeling approach to predict the fracture strength of fibrous Thermal Protection System (TPS) materials. The model assumes that system failure is initiated at the joints between individual fibers. We investigated three distinct TPS compositions: amorphous silica, alumina and aluminosilicate fibers. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were employed to determine the fracture strength values of these fiber joints for both material systems. These fracture strength values were then integrated into simulations of 3D randomly populated fiber structures, where tensile load transfer occurs through the fiber joints. These microscale properties are upscaled through a renormalization approach [1] to predict macroscale tensile strength of 3D random fiber networks, accounting for joint-dominated failure and effective load-bearing area. The study concludes by demonstrating the resulting strength variation as a function of material composition, fiber density, and morphology. We also show validation of results by comparing them against explicit fiber finite element (FE) modeling [2] where fiber joint fracture is represented by cohesive elements.

Jaehyun Cho↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Advances in Design Capabilities for Planetary Missions from the NASA Entry Systems Modeling and Instrumentation Portfolio

The Entry Systems Modeling project (ESM) is supported by both the NASA Space Technology and the Science Mission Directorates and focuses on developing simulation tools and validated models for characterizing the performance of entry systems tailored to planetary destinations across the Solar System. ESM is organized into six technical capability areas that together address all relevant factors related to spacecraft entry, as well as some aspects of descent: Thermal Protection System (TPS) Materials; Aerothermodynamics; Entry & Descent Vehicle Dynamics; Guidance, Navigation, and Control; Vehicle Systems Analysis; and Advanced Tools and Numerical Methods. Development within the capability areas is undertaken explicitly with a focus on transition and infusion to science missions, human exploration missions, and commercial space activities. The present talk details developments that specifically impact science missions, including simulation tool capabilities that aid in mission design and model development to understand entry system performance at a given destination. Examples of the successful infusion and transition of such project outcomes to science missions also are provided. Several simulation tool development efforts within ESM have resulted in new design capabilities for missions. One such outcome is improved toolsets for mission trajectory and concept of operations design. Specifically, an initiative to couple a leading tool for entry, ascent/descent, and orbital trajectory optimization (Program to Optimize Simulated Trajectories II or POST2) to those used within the Agency for interplanetary trajectory optimization (Copernicus and Monte) has made substantial progress, with the outcomes to date promising to allow efficient trajectory optimization across mission phases. Additionally, toolchains for the evaluation of vehicle performance during entry and descent have been developed that allow assessment of multi-dimensional aeroheating on detailed vehicle geometries, characterization of deployment and inflation of parachutes, and assessment of vehicle dynamic stability during descent. These capabilities are achieved by coupling diverse sets of physics together – material response, computational fluid dynamics, radiation, and vehicle dynamics – to suitably describe complex entry and descent phenomena. Several model development and validation efforts for specific destinations and entry regimes also are underway within the ESM project. For instance, new experimental capabilities to validate radiation models at low densities/high altitudes recently have been established with project support, specifically the Low-Density Shock Tube (LDST) at the NASA Ames Research Center Electric Arc Shock Tube (EAST) facility. The LDST is being leveraged to develop improved models of shock layer kinetics and radiation in Titan atmospheres, while future studies will be conducted in the LDST and the existing high velocity shock tube to provide validation data for radiation models of Venus, Ice Giants, and Mars atmospheres. Models describing the aerothermal and thermo-structural performance of Thermal Protection System (TPS) materials has been another focus, with multiscale modeling activities on-going for the two leading TPS materials applicable to a range of entry conditions and science missions: the Phenolic-Impregnated Carbon Ablator (PICA) and woven materials like 3D Mid-Density Carbon Phenolic (3MDCP). A continual effort is made to infuse and transition outcomes from ESM simulation tool and model development activities into relevant science missions. Significant progress has been made on this front, with missions such as Dragonfly, DAVINCI, and Mars Missions benefitting from project outcomes. The groundwork also is being laid to provide insights into forward looking missions to Gas/Ice Giants as well as for potential sample returns.

Justin Haskins↗