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NASA NTRS2006

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Ka-band (32 GHz) Demonstration: Cruise Phase Operations

The X-band (8.41 GHz) frequency currently used for deep space telecommunications is too narrow (50 MHz) to support future high rate missions. Because of this NASA has decided to transition to Ka-band (32 GHz) frequencies. As weather effects cause much larger fluctuations on Ka-band than on X-band, the traditional method of using a few dBs of margin to cover these fluctuations is wasteful of power for Ka-band; therefore, a different operations concept is needed for Ka-band links. As part of the development of the operations concept for Ka-band, NASA has implemented a fully functioning Ka-band communications suite on its Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). This suite will be used during the primary science phase to develop and refine the Ka-band operations concept for deep space missions. In order to test the functional readiness of the spacecraft and the Deep Space Network's (DSN) readiness to support the demonstration activities a series of passes over DSN 34-m Beam Waveguide (BWG) antennas were scheduled during the cruise phase of the mission. MRO was launched on August 12, 2005 from Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, Florida, USA and went into Mars Orbit on March 10, 2006. A total of ten telemetry demonstration and one high gain antenna (HGA) calibration passes were allocated to the Ka-band demonstration. Furthermore, a number of "shadow" passes were also scheduled where, during a regular MRO track over a Ka-band capable antenna, Ka-band was identically configured as the X-band and tracked by the station. In addition, nine Ka-band delta differential one way ranging ((delta)DOR) passes were scheduled. During these passes, the spacecraft and the ground system were put through their respective paces. Among the highlights of these was setting a single day record for data return from a deep space spacecraft (133 Gbits) achieved during one 10-hour pass; achieving the highest data rate ever from a planetary mission (6 Mbps) and successfully demonstrating Ka-band DDOR. In addition, DSN performed well. However, there are concerns with the active pointing of the Ka-band antennas as well as delivery of the monitor data from the stations. The spacecraft also presented challenges not normally associated with planetary missions mostly because of its very high equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP). This caused problems in accurately evaluating the in-flight EIRP of the spacecraft which led to difficulties evaluating the quality of the HGA calibration data. These led to the development of additional measurement techniques that could be used for future high-power deep space missions.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)↗
NASA NTRS2017

Data Production on Past and Future NASA Missions

Data return is a metric that is commonly publicized for all space science missions. In the early days of the Space Program, this figure was small, and could be described in bits or maybe even megabits. But now, missions are capable of returning data volumes two or three orders of magnitude larger. For example, Voyager 1 and 2 combined produced a little over 5 Terabits of data in 39 years of operation. In contrast, the Cassini mission, launched two decades after Voyager, produced about one and a half times those data volumes in half the time. NISAR, an Earth Science Mission currently in implementation, plans to produce over 28 Petabits of raw data in just 3 years. This means that NISAR will produce about as many data in 30 days as the combined data production of nearly all planetary missions to date. These increases in capability are a result of technology enhancements in two main areas: telecommunications architecture (both space and ground segments) and data storage technology. This paper describes the progression of these two technologies over the course of more than three decades of space missions and provides additional insight into the design of the end-to-end NISAR Data System Architecture. Trends in the data are briefly explored and compared to Moore’s Law which provides only a qualitative model for memory growth but not for data production. In summary, early missions are found to be driven by unrefined processes while later missions, having utilized earlier lessons learned, focus more on improvements to flight and ground capabilities. Data return seems to fall into three categories. First, deep space missions are driven by the large distances that limit data return to the Earth. Next, the orbiter infrastructure around Mars helps these missions generate more data than other deep space spacecraft. Finally, near-Earth missions have the greatest capabilities for the studied metrics due to their close proximity to Earth and the ground network availability.

Xaypraseuth, Peter↗
NASA NTRS2021

Assessing Relay Communications for Mars Sample Return Surface Mission Concepts

The Mars Sample Return (MSR) Campaign is a 3-mission campaign concept supported by NASA and ESA to return samples from the Mars surface. MSR will, for the firsttime ever, present a need to communicate with multiple surfaceassets that are co-located on Mars in a coordinated effort toaccomplish the unified objective of fetching, transporting, andreturning samples from Mars. Currently, Mars surface assetsrelay data to and from Earth using a number of orbiters inwhat’s known as the Mars Relay Network (MRN). This networkis characterized by a small number of surface assets distributedacross the Martian globe and a larger number of orbiters toprovide relay services. As of June 2020, there are two surfaceassets for which five orbiters are providing relay. During theMSR Campaign, there will be two rovers and a lander that allwill require relay communication from a small number of Marsorbiters to meet the aggressive MSR timeline. The inversion ofthe current MRN paradigm, a system of many surface assetsrequiring relay and few orbiters to provide relay, necessitatesthe unique challenge of optimally allocating relay passes tomaximize the operational capability of all assets. The allocationmust consider a large number of trade variables includingMars asset operational requirements and Earth ground systemconstraints, including staffing schedules, operations planningacross time zones, and more. To address these telecommunicationchallenges, the Mars Asset Relay Mission Link AllocationDesign Environment (MARMLADE) tool was developed. Itis a MATLAB-based tool to assign orbiter passes or Direct-From-Earth (DFE) links to each of the three surface assets andquantify the operational efficiency of each surface asset.MARMLADE uses a data set of simulated Mars relay orbitergeometry and telecommunication capabilities provided by JPL’sTelecom Orbit Analysis and Simulation Tool (TOAST) softwareto compute which asset should get each pass based on a seriesof heuristics and predictions of all assets’ states. WithinMARMLADE, the user can provide inputs including the optionfor time-based pass splitting, fixed FWD data rate capabilities,DFE communication capabilities, and link parameters allowingfor the assessment of complex operations and hardware tradesusing surface mission operational efficiency as a primary figureof merit. As the MSR mission concepts continue to mature,MARMLADE is being used to assess ability of all MSR elementsto meet the surface mission timeline requirements and to provide relay link allocations to each of the MSR surface assets.

Lee, Charles↗
NASA NTRS2010

Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Annual Report 2009

2009 was truly the year of astronomy at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. While the world at large was celebrating the International Year of Astronomy, we were sending more telescopes into space than in any other year, ever. As these missions unfold, the astronomers are sure to change the way we see the universe. One of the newly lofted observatories is on a quest to find planets like our own Earth orbiting other stars. Another is a telescope that gathers infrared light to help discover objects ranging from near-Earth asteroids to galaxies in the deepest universe. We also contributed critical enabling technologies to yet two other telescopes sent into space by our partners in Europe. And astronauts returned to Earth with a JPL-built camera that had captured the Hubble Space Telescope's most memorable pictures over many years. And while it was an epic time for these missions, we were no less busy in our other research specialties. Earth's moon drew much attention from our scientists and engineers, with two JPL instruments riding on lunar orbiters; previously unseen views of shadowed craters were provided by radar imaging conducted with the giant dish antennas of the Deep Space Network, our worldwide communication portal to spacecraft around the solar system. At Mars, our rovers and orbiters were highly productive, as were missions targeting Saturn, comets and the asteroid belt. Here at our home planet, satellites and instruments continued to serve up important information on global climate change. But our main business is, of course, exploring. Many initiatives will keep us busy for years. In 2009, NASA gave approval to start planning a major flagship mission to Jupiter's moon Europa in search of conditions that could host life, working with our partners in Europe. In addition to our prospective Earth science projects, we have full slates of missions in Mars exploration, planetary exploration and space-based astronomy. This year's annual report continues our recent direction of recounting the Laboratory's accomplishments throughout the year month by month.

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)↗
NASA NTRS1989

Environmental Projects. Volume 8: Modifications of wastewater evaporation ponds

The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex (GDSCC), located in the Mojave Desert about 45 miles north of Barstow, California, and about 160 miles northeast of Pasadena, is part of NASA's Deep Space Network, one of the world's largest and most sensitive scientific telecommunications and radio navigation networks. The Goldstone Complex is managed, technically directed, and operated for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California. Activities at the GDSCC are carried out in support of seven parabolic dish antennas. These activities may give rise to environmental hazards: use of hazardous chemicals, asbestos, and underground storage tanks as well as the generation of hazardous wastes and the disposal of wastewater. Federal, state, and local laws governing the management of hazardous substances, asbestos, underground storage tanks and wastewater disposal have become so complex there is a need to devise specific programs to comply with the many regulations that implement these laws. In support of the national goal of the preservation of the environment and the protection of human health and safety, NASA, JPL, and the GDSCC have adopted a position that their operating installations shall maintain a high level of compliance with these laws. One of the environmental problems at the GDSCC involved four active, operational, wastewater evaporation ponds designed to receive and evaporate sewage effluent from upstream septic tank systems. One pair of active wastewater evaporation ponds is located at Echo Site, while another operational pair is at Mars Site.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2009

Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Annual Report 2008

Nothing is more exciting than when science mines the far end of our knowledge for the new and the unexpected. In 2008, the world was taken by surprise when JPL astronomers announced the discovery of organic compounds on a planet orbiting another star. We were equally excited to learn from the Spitzer Space Telescope that many, if not most, sun-like stars have rocky planets roughly similar to Earth. Together these are very intriguing clues in our quest to learn if there is life elsewhere in the universe, which certainly has to be one of the most profound mysteries of our age.There are times when, dealing with unknowns, we are reminded to be humble. Very impressive progress is being made by the team developing our next flagship mission, Mars Science Laboratory. Ther conclusion, however, is that it would not be safe to try to fly during the Mars launch window in 2009, and reset for the next opportunity in 2011. We are lucky to have valuable assets that support us as we venture into the unknown. One is the global Deep Space Network, which functions both as our communication gateway to our spacecraft across the solar system as well as a research tool itself in conducting radar astronomy. Our successes depend on our entire team, administrators and business specialists as much as technical people. There are those who help share our missions with the public, finding imaginative venues such as sending out dispatches on the Internet's Twitter.com during the Phoenix mission. We also benefit greatly from the intellectual infusion that comes from our unique identity as a division of the California Institute of Technology and a member of the NASA family.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NAS↗
NASA NTRS2017

AI and Autonomy Initiatives for NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN)

NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN) consists of thirteen large (34- and 70-meter) antennas that are used to communicate with approximately 40 NASA and partner spacecraft, all at great distance from the earth (generally at Lunar distances and beyond). The DSN has a long history — over 50 years — and has evolved with cutting edge, often custom, telecommunications equipment and associated software systems. In recent years, and in preparation for an increasing future demand, there has been an effort to invest in initiatives that will result in significant cost savings in the future. These efforts are building on, or augmenting, the recent deployment of “Follow-the-Sun” operations (day shift remote operational control of the entire network from each of the three antenna complexes in turn) — which is being deployed in 2017. This paper focuses on Adaptive Demand Access: in a paradigm shift from completely pre-planned operations, this concept calls for spacecraft to signal their intent (or not) for near-future contacts, in case they have science results of interest, or have experienced an anomaly. This would take advantage of a beacon tone transmission, which can be detected using smaller antennas. When a connection request is received, the DSN ground systems would adaptively accommodate the request, inserting the contact into the plan as soon as possible, subject to constraints and priorities. The demand access concept incorporates onboard data analysis and science data processing, so that beacon tones can be generated with maximum information. This area is representative of several where infusing AI technologies can lead to improved effectiveness of the DSN as the network readies for support of expanded Mars exploration efforts in the 2020’s and beyond.

Wyatt, E. Jay↗
NASA NTRS1998

Applications of telemedicine in the United States space program

Since the beginning of human space flight, NASA has been placing humans in extreme and remote environments. There are many challenges in maintaining humans in outer space, including the provision of life-support systems, radiation shielding, and countermeasures for minimizing the effect of microgravity. Because astronauts are selected for their health, among other factors, disease and illness are minimized. However, it is still of great importance to have appropriate medical care systems in place to address illness and injury should they occur. With the exception of the Apollo program, exploration of space has been limited to missions that are within several hundred miles of the surface of the Earth. At the drawn of the 21st century and the new millennium, human exploration will be focused on operation of the International Space Station (ISS) and preparation for human missions to Mars. These missions will present inherent risks to human health, and, therefore, appropriate plans must be established to address these challenges and risks. Crews of long-duration missions must become more independent from ground controllers. New systems, protocols, and procedures are currently being perfected. Application of emerging technologies in information systems and telecommunications will be critical to inflight medical care. Application of these technologies through telemedicine will provide crew members access to information, noninvasive procedures for assessing health status, and guidance through the integration of sensors, holography, decision-support systems, and virtual environments. These technologies will also serve as a basis to enhance training and medical education. The design of medical care for space flight should lead to a redesign of the practice of medicine on Earth.

Review, Tutorial↗
NASA NTRS2015

Software Defined Radio Architecture Contributions to Next Generation Space Communications

Space communications architecture concepts, comprising the elements of the system, the interactions among them, and the principles that govern their development, are essential factors in developing National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) future exploration and science missions. Accordingly, vital architectural attributes encompass flexibility, the extensibility to insert future capabilities, and to enable evolution to provide interoperability with other current and future systems. Space communications architectures and technologies for this century must satisfy a growing set of requirements, including those for Earth sensing, collaborative observation missions, robotic scientific missions, human missions for exploration of the Moon and Mars where surface activities require supporting communications, and in-space observatories for observing the earth, as well as other star systems and the universe. An advanced, integrated, communications infrastructure will enable the reliable, multipoint, high-data-rate capabilities needed on demand to provide continuous, maximum coverage for areas of concentrated activity. Importantly, the cost/value proposition of the future architecture must be an integral part of its design; an affordable and sustainable architecture is indispensable within anticipated future budget environments. Effective architecture design informs decision makers with insight into the capabilities needed to efficiently satisfy the demanding space-communication requirements of future missions and formulate appropriate requirements. A driving requirement for the architecture is the extensibility to address new requirements and provide low-cost on-ramps for new capabilities insertion, ensuring graceful growth as new functionality and new technologies are infused into the network infrastructure. In addition to extensibility, another key architectural attribute of the space communication equipment's interoperability with other NASA communications systems, as well as those communications and navigation systems operated by international space agencies and civilian and government agencies. In this paper, we review the philosophies, technologies, architectural attributes, mission services, and communications capabilities that form the structure of candidate next-generation integrated communication architectures for space communications and navigation. A key area that this paper explores is from the development and operation of the software defined radio for the NASA Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) Testbed currently on the International Space Station (ISS). Evaluating the lessons learned from development and operation feed back into the communications architecture. Leveraging the reconfigurability provides a change in the way that operations are done and must be considered. Quantifying the impact on the NASA Space Telecommunications Radio System (STRS) software defined radio architecture provides feedback to keep the standard useful and up to date. NASA is not the only customer of these radios. Software defined radios are developed for other applications, and taking advantage of these developments promotes an architecture that is cost effective and sustainable. Developments in the following areas such as an updated operating environment, higher data rates, networking and security can be leveraged. The ability to sustain an architecture that uses radios for multiple markets can lower costs and keep new technology infused.

Lessons Learned↗
NASA NTRS2013

Relay Support for the Mars Science Laboratory Mission

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission landed the Curiosity Rover on the surface of Mars on August 6, 2012, beginning a one-Martian-year primary science mission. An international network of Mars relay orbiters, including NASA's 2001 Mars Odyssey Orbiter (ODY) and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), and ESA's Mars Express Orbiter (MEX), were positioned to provide critical event coverage of MSL's Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL). The EDL communication plan took advantage of unique and complementary capabilities of each orbiter to provide robust information capture during this critical event while also providing low-latency information during the landing. Once on the surface, ODY and MRO have provided effectively all of Curiosity's data return from the Martian surface. The link from Curiosity to MRO incorporates a number of new features enabled by the Electra and Electra-Lite software-defined radios on MRO and Curiosity, respectively. Specifically, the Curiosity-MRO link has for the first time on Mars relay links utilized frequency-agile operations, data rates up to 2.048 Mb/s, suppressed carrier modulation, and a new Adaptive Data Rate algorithm in which the return link data rate is optimally varied throughout the relay pass based on the actual observed link channel characteristics. In addition to the baseline surface relay support by ODY and MRO, the MEX relay service has been verified in several successful surface relay passes, and MEX now stands ready to provide backup relay support should NASA's orbiters become unavailable for some period of time.

Telecommunications↗
NASA NTRS2007

Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Annual Report 2006

Nothing is as gratifying in space exploration as when we are surprised by the unexpected. Much of our work progresses in an orderly way, from concept to plan to creation to finding. But now and then we are caught off-guard by something startlingly new, and it is these moments that make our hearts race and leave us with many of our most compelling memories. And 2006 was an exceptional year for the unforeseen. One of our orbiters shocked many with stark proof that liquid water, the seemingly long-gone force that reshaped so much of the scenery of Mars, still flows there today,at least in occasional bursts. Another spacecraft caught us by surprise with photos of Yellowstone-like geysers on one of Saturn's seemingly nondescript moons, Enceladus. A spaceborne observatory created to plumb the life histories of stars and galaxies showed off a completely unexpected talent when it revealed the day and night faces of a fire and ice planet far beyond our solar system 40 light-years away. A newly launched Earth observer revealed that the clouds that decorate our own planet are not what we thought them to be in many ways. Of course, not all of the high points of the year arrived on our doorstep in such unexpected ways. There was also great drama when missions came off exactly as planned, such as when Stardust's sample return capsule made a flawless landing in the Utah desert, bringing home samples of cometary and interstellar dust. Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter slipped into orbit around the red planet exactly as planned. Numerous other missions and technology programs likewise made great achievements during the year. In all, 17 spacecraft and six instruments were stationed across the solar system, studying our own world, other planets, comets and the deeper universe. All of these achievements were enabled by many teams and systems at the Laboratory. The Deep Space Network of communications complexes across three continents supported all of NASA's solar system missions, and several from our international partners, while looking ahead to reinvent itself for the future. Technologists were at work creating innovations both for NASA missions and terrestrial uses. JPL's community of scientific researchers was equally busy coordinating the science activities of our missions and pursuing independent investigations. None of this would be possible without the support of business and administrative teams dedicated to making the Laboratory's institutional environment as world-class as its technical face, or the public engagement specialists who bring the experience of space to the country's diverse publics. All of our missions in one way or another support our nation's Vision for Space Exploration, which envisages a gradually widening robotic and human presence across the solar system in the years ahead.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NAS↗
NASA NTRS2013

Direct-to-Earth Communications with Mars Science Laboratory During Entry, Descent, and Landing

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) undergoes extreme heating and acceleration during Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL) on Mars. Unknown dynamics lead to large Doppler shifts, making communication challenging. During EDL, a special form of Multiple Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK) communication is used for Direct-To-Earth (DTE) communication. The X-band signal is received by the Deep Space Network (DSN) at the Canberra Deep Space Communication complex, then down-converted, digitized, and recorded by open-loop Radio Science Receivers (RSR), and decoded in real-time by the EDL Data Analysis (EDA) System. The EDA uses lock states with configurable Fast Fourier Transforms to acquire and track the signal. RSR configuration and channel allocation is shown. Testing prior to EDL is discussed including software simulations, test bed runs with MSL flight hardware, and the in-flight end-to-end test. EDA configuration parameters and signal dynamics during pre-entry, entry, and parachute deployment are analyzed. RSR and EDA performance during MSL EDL is evaluated, including performance using a single 70-meter DSN antenna and an array of two 34-meter DSN antennas as a back up to the 70-meter antenna.

Direct-to-Earth (DTE)↗
NASA NTRS2006

Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Annual Report 2005

What an amazing host of new sights 2005 brought us. With impeccable choreography, one spacecraft sent an impactor slamming into a comet, reversing the traditional view of these space wayfarers by revealing it to be buried in deep drifts of a fine talcum-like powder. Another spacecraft delivered a probe from our European partners to the surface of Saturn's haze-shrouded moon Titan, disclosing a landscape eerily like Earth's, if we had methane rivers cascading down hillsides of ice. An orbiting observatory for the first time showed us the light from planets circling other stars, which astronomers previously knew to exist only from indirect clues. Throughout the year we also amassed continually expanding views of Earth as well as Mars, by far the most-explored planet after our own. In all, 18 spacecraft and five instruments were stationed across the solar system, studying our own world, other planets, comets and the deeper universe. These missions were enabled by the efforts of everyone at JPL. The Deep Space Network of communications complexes across three continents continued to experience a period of remarkable activity. Others were at work creating technologies both for NASA missions and other uses. JPL's contingent of scientific researchers was equally busy coordinating the science activities of our missions or pursuing independent investigations. None of this would be possible without the support of world-class business and administrative teams. All of our missions in one way or another support our nations Vision for Space Exploration, which envisages a gradually widening robotic and human presence across the solar system in the years ahead. The year was not without its challenges. NASA set forth to implement the Vision for Space Exploration, which resulted in some flight projects and technology efforts being terminated. To adjust to this new direction, it was necessary for us to reduce the JPL workforce by about five percent. Taking steps like this is painful, but we tried to make the process as orderly as possible. In the end, the adjustments made have left JPL on a healthy footing for the years ahead.

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)↗