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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Study on Emulsification/Demulsification Behavior and Mechanism of Produced Liquid from Polymer Flooding on Alaska North Slope

Heavy oil reservoirs on Alaska North Slope (ANS) are unconsolidated and contain abundant clay minerals, where the first-ever field pilot is currently implemented to validate the use of polymer floods for heavy oil enhanced oil recovery (EOR). The polymer molecules and/or fine clay particles carried with the produced liquid could potentially affect the oil/water separation, which is one of the major concerns for field operators. This dissertation aims to investigate the emulsification behavior of produced liquid, understand the emulsifying mechanism, and seek an adaptive and cost-effective method to treat the produced liquid from polymer flooding. Emulsions were prepared by mechanically mixing the actual heavy oil and the produced water from the pilot site, of which the stability was investigated by bottle test method or multiple light scattering method. Drop size distribution and interfacial properties were measured via microscope and pendant drop technique to probe the stability mechanism further. Results showed that oil-continuous or water-continuous emulsion could be generated depending on the water cut, clay types, clay concentration, and polymer concentration. In the crude oil/water system, the increasing water cut triggered the phase inversion of oil-continuous emulsion to water-continuous emulsion, resulting in faster separation and lower emulsion stability. Whereas, clay particles, no matter added to the oil or water phase, resulted in an unfavorable phase inversion from the loose water-continuous emulsion to the tight oil-continuous emulsion as clay concentration increased. For all four types of clay except Ca-montmorillonite, clay particles added to water led to an earlier phase inversion and higher emulsion stability than that added to the oil. The dual function of polymer on emulsion stability was observed. On the one hand, both sheared and unsheared polymer tended to convert the oil-continuous emulsion formed in either crude oil/water system or complex crude oil/water/clay particle system to the water-continuous emulsion, acting as a weak demulsifier to accelerate the oil/water separation. On the other hand, the addition of polymer to the water-continuous emulsion could result in enhanced emulsion stability, which is primarily attributed to the increased viscosity of the continuous phase and the decreased drop size of the dispersed oil phase. Particularly, the sheared polymer had a weaker ability to stabilize the o/w emulsion than the unsheared polymer due to the lower viscosity of the sheared polymer solution resulting from the breakdown of the polymer macromolecules. As for the chemical demulsification tests, the performance of demulsifiers showed a complex dependency upon the water cut, the shearing intensity, demulsifier type and dosage, and the polymer concentration. A compound emulsion breaker, E12+E18, exhibited the most satisfactory demulsification performance despite the varied test conditions. For severe water-continuous emulsions that might require a multi-fold dosage of demulsifier, a less expensive electrolyte, KCl, was proposed to be used in combination with demulsifier E12+E18 to improve the demulsification performance. In the proposed demulsifier formula, the effectiveness of the commercial demulsifier relied on its destructive effect on the interfacial film, while the efficacy of KCl was mainly dependent on its viscosity reduction effect on the continuous phase. This dissertation illustrates that intermediate layer elimination and water clarification are the major challenges for produced liquid treatment from polymer flooding. It also provides practical and theoretical guidance in advance for the demulsification strategy of the produced liquid from the ongoing first-ever polymer flooding pilot on ANS.

Chang, Hongli↗
DOE OSTI2023

Decision-Making Framework to Evaluate Opportunities for Recovery of Rare Earth Elements and Critical Minerals in Produced Water Networks

Oil and gas development activities require a significant amount of water. Given the environmental impacts associated with high consumption and subsequent disposal of this water, there is a need for strategies to support effective reuse of, treatment of, and/or resource recovery from this produced water. These streams can contain appreciable concentrations of rare earth elements (REE) and critical minerals (CM) (e.g., Lithium), which are critical for many important applications in electronics, technology, manufacturing, energy, and medicine [1]. Along with REE/CM present in produced water, other waste streams such as fly ash from coal-fired power plants and acid mine discharge present other potential sources for recovery of REE/CM [2-4]. And with increases in demand for REE/CM, the need for recovery from wastewater streams is becoming even more important. There is a need to develop effective decision-making tools to evaluate the economic and environmental potential for REE/CM recovery from produced water networks while supporting the needs of drilling and hydraulic fracturing activities. In this work, we present our progress in developing a decision-making framework to efficiently design and operate produced water networks for REE/CM recovery. Our approach considers REE/CM recovery from produced water streams alongside other potential wastewater sources. The models consider the location and capacity of storage and decentralized treatment processes as well as the design and operation of pipeline and transportation networks to connect different sources and effectively schedule inventories, reuse, and recovery opportunities. We focus on the evaluation of opportunities for REE/CM recovery with treatment constraints on composition and flow. We demonstrate this framework with an illustrative case study that features diverse production sites, storage facilities, transportation, and treatment sites. This proposed framework will be deployed in an open-source software package that is compatible with the PARETO framework to deliver analysis and decision-making tools that allow stakeholders to quantitatively evaluate potential opportunities for REE/CM recovery in produced water networks.

Pulsipher, Joshua↗
DOE OSTI2021

Flume and single-pass washing systems for fresh-cut produce processing: Disinfection by-products evaluation

Free chlorine is widely used in fresh-cut produce washing to minimize microbial cross-contamination, but its application can also lead to the formation of harmful disinfection byproducts (DBPs). This study compared DBPs in process water and washed produce during commercial operation. Samples of shredded lettuce and diced cabbages washed in chlorinated water in the traditional double-flume wash and novel immersion-free single-pass wash systems were collected at multiple time points and locations from the processing lines. A suite of 33 conventional and emerging DBPs, including 4 trihalomethanes (THMs), 9 haloacetic acids (HAAs), 9 nitrogenous DBPs (N-DBPs), and 11 carbonaceous DBPs (C-DBPs), were investigated. Overall, N-DBPs and HAAs dominated the concentration of detected DBPs. Wash water in the flumes contained 7–111 folds higher DBP levels compared to that in the single-pass system, with the abundance of DBPs following the order of N-DBPs > HAAs > C-DBPs > THMs. DBPs were detected on washed produce, presenting primarily in the forms of N-DBPs and HAAs followed by C-DBPs and THMs. While higher levels of DBPs were detected in flume-washed produce, the final potable water rinse significantly reduced the DBP concentration in these products. The concentrations of THMs and HAAs on these washed products were used to estimate potential exposure via consumption of fresh-cut produce and the levels were below the daily allowable exposure for drinking water standard established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The detected high concentration and potential toxicity of N-DBPs indicate the need for further research. Here, the findings of this study advance the understanding of the formation and removal of DBPs during wash processes, and identify additional research opportunities for further reduction in DBPs and food safety improvement.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

A robust offering strategy for wind producers considering uncertainties of demand response and wind power

This paper proposes a risk-constrained decision-making approach for a wind power producer participating in the day-ahead market. In the developed model, a flexible demand response trading scheme between the wind power producer and different customers is employed. Through the proposed demand response mechanism, the wind power producer is able to trade demand response resource internally with different customers, and then trade energy externally with the market to increase the expected profit and the wind energy utilization. The uncertainties in the wind power and demand response are modeled by using the information gap decision theory approach from risk averse (robust) and risk-seeking (opportunistic) perspectives. The objective of the robust model is to maximize the robust level while satisfying the desired profit, whereas the opportunistic model aims to evaluate the possibility of achieving windfall profits with favorable uncertainties. The overall offering strategy problem is modeled as a bi-objective mixed integer nonlinear programming, which is linearized by proper techniques and solved efficiently by using the normal boundary intersection technique. In this work, simulation results show that utilizing demand response resource to mitigate wind power deviations can increase a wind power producer's profit and reduce potential risks. In addition, the results demonstrate that the proposed bi-objective optimization approach enables the wind power producer to select appropriate offering decisions with respect to uncertainties.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

A Simple Data-Centric Methodology for Producible Geothermal Well Determinations: Preprint

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has traditionally lacked a standardized methodology for determining if a newly drilled geothermal well is "producible," a designation essential for deciding whether a lease should be "held by production." This is a straightforward problem to solve in oil and gas: Demonstrate that a well is economically viable, meaning it produces sufficient oil or gas to exceed direct operating costs and lease-related expenses, such as rentals or minimum royalties. In geothermal, the problem is more complex: Geothermal wells are tightly coupled with the downstream infrastructure - specifically, the power plant, which is often not designed until well after a lease is deemed as "held by production." Although this designation is critical for advancing geothermal power plant development on BLM-managed lands, current geothermal well assessments often rely on ad hoc approaches that can be complex, operator-biased, and heavy in assumptions related to economic viability. To address this, we have developed two complementary methodologies: a minimum power requirement-based approach and a productivity index (PI)-based approach. These methods leverage key flow test data - pressure, temperature, flow rate, and specific enthalpy - to provide reliable and standardized producible well determinations. The minimum power requirement-based approach evaluates wells against specific power output thresholds informed by reservoir experts and the associated temperature requirements. The PI-based approach assesses well productivity using widely accepted reservoir engineering metrics, proposing a threshold of 2.5 kg/s/bar. Both methods are data-driven and grounded in empirical production data from operational geothermal wells, avoiding uncertain economic assumptions while maintaining decision-making accuracy. Wells falling below key performance thresholds (i.e., PI, specific power) are deemed non-producible. These methodologies aim to streamline BLM's decision-making process, reduce nontechnical barriers to geothermal energy adoption, and enable regulatory expansion into states lacking geothermal expertise. Preliminary results indicate clear trends and thresholds in production data that provide actionable insights for evaluating well producibility. Validation using well completion report (WCR) data is ongoing, with promising results demonstrating the potential for these standardized methodologies to impact geothermal development significantly.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Size and Distribution of Parr Produced from Natural‐ and Hatchery‐Origin Steelhead Spawning Naturally in a Small Pacific Northwest Coastal Stream

Abstract Recent studies suggest that steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss produced from local hatchery‐origin (HOR) adults have lower lifetime fitness than their natural‐origin (NOR) counterparts. To increase our understanding of this pattern, we compared age‐1 parr size and distribution produced by a local integrated population of HOR and NOR adults spawning naturally across a range of environmental conditions. Across 8 years, we used genetic parentage assignments and field measurements of parr in conjunction with creek temperature and flow data to find small, nonbiologically significant differences in size between parr of different parent origins. This suggests that parr produced by HOR adults are acquiring enough resources to grow at a rate similar to that of parr produced by NOR adults. In contrast to origin, we found strong positive associations between mean size of parr and annual mean water temperature and summer flow. Additionally, the distribution of parr was similar and HOR‐produced parr were not skewed relative to the location of the hatchery. Parr occupying the full extent of accessible and suitable habitat might be a positive outcome for hatchery programs seeking to supplement an existing population or replace an extirpated population. However, these results also imply that HOR fish could be competing with NOR fish for food and space, which might be less desirable if the goal of the hatchery program is harvest and not supplementation. Our results highlight the importance of clearly articulated goals for the hatchery program, as the observed pattern could be deemed a benefit or a risk depending on the hatchery's purpose. Lastly, projections for higher water temperatures and reduced summer flows, when considered in the context of the correlations we observed for size of parr, imply that coastal steelhead populations could start experiencing negative climate impacts with respect to steelhead parr growth metrics during the summer in the next few decades.

Kennedy, Benjamen M.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Investigating sol–gel matrix loading capacity toward producing surrogate nuclear explosive debris with realistic composition

Post detonation nuclear forensic materials which resemble the size, color, elemental composition, and radionuclide content of real nuclear debris would be valuable for developing and validating new nuclear forensic techniques. As nuclear fallout types vary significantly, the ability to tailor each of these parameters accurately is desired to produce materials capable of testing analytical methods under a wide array of forensic scenarios. Sol–gel synthesis techniques can provide tunability of size, shape and composition for producing a wide variety of solid nuclear forensics benchmarking materials. Further, the sol–gel process consists of forming a metal oxide material, often silica, through polymerization of a metal-alkoxy precursor. In this work, we characterize the ability to load sol–gel particles with secondary elemental components such as iron, aluminum, and calcium toward producing benchmarking materials approximating the elemental composition of historic nuclear debris from the Nevada National Security Site. We also demonstrate quantitative radionuclide encapsulation toward producing benchmarking materials with controllable radionuclide content. Finally, we employ these techniques to produce nuclear debris benchmarking materials with controllable elemental matrix composition and radionuclide content and compare these samples with the composition of a historic fallout sample previously reported from the Nevada National Security Site.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Trophic interactions shape the spatial organization of medium-chain carboxylic acid producing granular biofilm communities

Abstract Granular biofilms producing medium-chain carboxylic acids (MCCA) from carbohydrate-rich industrial feedstocks harbor highly streamlined communities converting sugars to MCCA either directly or via lactic acid as intermediate. We investigated the spatial organization and growth activity patterns of MCCA producing granular biofilms grown on an industrial side stream to test (i) whether key functional guilds (lactic acid producing Olsenella and MCCA producing Oscillospiraceae) stratified in the biofilm based on substrate usage, and (ii) whether spatial patterns of growth activity shaped the unique, lenticular morphology of these biofilms. First, three novel isolates (one Olsenella and two Oscillospiraceae species) representing over half of the granular biofilm community were obtained and used to develop FISH probes, revealing that key functional guilds were not stratified. Instead, the outer 150–500 µm of the granular biofilm consisted of a well-mixed community of Olsenella and Oscillospiraceae, while deeper layers were made up of other bacteria with lower activities. Second, nanoSIMS analysis of 15N incorporation in biofilms grown in normal and lactic acid amended conditions suggested Oscillospiraceae switched from sugars to lactic acid as substrate. This suggests competitive-cooperative interactions may govern the spatial organization of these biofilms, and suggests that optimizing biofilm size may be a suitable process engineering strategy. Third, growth activities were similar in the polar and equatorial biofilm peripheries, leaving the mechanism behind the lenticular biofilm morphology unexplained. Physical processes (e.g., shear hydrodynamics, biofilm life cycles) may have contributed to lenticular biofilm development. Together, this study develops an ecological framework of MCCA-producing granular biofilms that informs bioprocess development.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Forensic tracers of exposure to produced water in freshwater mussels: a preliminary assessment of Ba, Sr, and cyclic hydrocarbons

Hydraulic fracturing is often criticized due in part to the potential degradation of ground and surface water quality by high-salinity produced water generated during well stimulation and production. This preliminary study evaluated the response of the freshwater mussel, Elliptio complanata, after exposure to produced water. A limited number of adult mussels were grown over an 8-week period in tanks dosed with produced water collected from a hydraulically fractured well. The fatty tissue and carbonate shells were assessed for accumulation of both inorganic and organic pollutants. Ba, Sr, and cyclic hydrocarbons indicated the potential to accumulate in the soft tissue of freshwater mussels following exposure to diluted oil and gas produced water. Exposed mussels showed accumulation of Ba in the soft tissue several hundred times above background water concentrations and increased concentrations of Sr. Cyclic hydrocarbons were detected in dosed mussels and principle component analysis of gas chromatograph time-of-flight mass spectrometer results could be a novel tool to help identify areas where aquatic organisms are impacted by oil and gas produced water, but larger studies with greater replication are necessary to confirm these results.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Observation of breakdown wave mechanism in avalanche ionization produced atmospheric plasma generated by a picosecond CO 2 laser

Understanding the formation and long-timescale evolution of atmospheric plasmas produced by ultrashort, long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) pulses is an important but partially understood problem. Of particular interest are plasmas produced in air with a peak laser intensity ~10 12 W/cm 2 , the so-called clamping intensity observed in LWIR atmospheric guiding experiments where tunneling and multi-photon ionization operative at near-IR or shorter wavelengths are inoperative. We find that avalanche breakdown on the surface of aerosol (dust) particles can act to seed the breakdown of air observed above the 200 GW/cm 2 threshold when a train of 3 ps 10.6 μm laser pulses separated by 18 ps is used. The breakdown first appears at the best focus but propagates backward toward the focusing optic as the plasma density approaches critical density and makes forward propagation impossible. The velocity of the backward propagating breakdown can be as high as 10 9 cm/s, an order of magnitude greater than measured with ns pulse-produced breakdown, and can be explained rather well by the so-called breakdown wave mechanism. Transverse plasma expansion with a similar velocity is assisted by UV photoionization and is observed as a secondary longitudinal breakdown mechanism in roughly 10% of the shots. When a cm-size, TW power beam is propagated, interception of aerosol particles is guaranteed and several (40 cm -3 ) breakdown sites appear, each initially producing a near-critical density plasma. On a 10 ns–1 μs timescale, shockwaves from each site expand radially and coalesce to produce a large hot gas channel. The radial velocity of the expansion agrees well with the prediction of the blast wave theory developed for ultrafast atmospheric detonations.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2022

Characterization of sub-picosecond laser-produced fast electrons by modeling angularly resolved bremsstrahlung measurements with 3D hybrid particle-in-cell code

Hard x-rays produced by intense laser-produced fast electrons interacting with solids are a vital source for producing radiographs of high-density objects and implosion cores for inertial confinement fusion. Accurate calculation of hard x-ray sources requires a three-dimensional (3D) simulation geometry that fully models the electron transport dynamics, including electron recirculation and the generation of absolute photon yields. To date, 3D simulations of laser-produced bremsstrahlung photons over tens of picoseconds and code benchmarking have not been performed definitively. In this study, we characterize sub-picosecond laser-produced fast electrons by modeling angularly resolved bremsstrahlung measurements for refluxing and non-refluxing targets using the 3D hybrid particle-in-cell (PIC), Large Scale Plasma code. Bremsstrahlung radiation and escaped electron data were obtained by focusing a 50-TW Leopard laser (15 J, 0.35 ps, 2 × 10 19 W/cm 2 ) on a 100-μm-thick Cu foil and a Cu with a large plastic backing (Cu–CH target). Data for both the Cu and Cu–CH targets were reproduced for simulations with a given set of electron parameters. Comparison of the simulations revealed that the hard x-ray emission from the Cu target was significantly longer in duration than that from the Cu–CH target. Here, the benchmarked hybrid PIC code could prove to be a powerful tool in the design and optimization of time- and angular-dependent bremsstrahlung sources for flash x-ray and gamma-ray radiography.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Pressure fields produced by single-bubble collapse near a corner

Damage produced by repeated bubble collapse to neighboring rigid objects in hydraulic systems is an important consequence of cavitation. Although bubble collapse near a single wall has received significant attention in the past, few studies exist on the dynamics of bubbles collapsing near a corner, i.e., two flat rigid surfaces intersecting at a right angle. In this work we quantify the pressure fields produced by a single bubble collapsing near two perpendicular rigid walls. Using a high-order accurate shock- and interface-capturing method to solve the three-dimensional compressible Navier-Stokes equations for gas and liquid flows, we simulate the dynamics of a single bubble collapsing at different initial stand-off distances from the two walls. In contrast to a bubble collapsing near a single wall, the collapse of bubbles within a critical stand-off distance is not symmetric about the bisecting plane due to the interaction between the bubble and the second wall. The second wall affects the pressure produced during the collapse in the following ways: (i) For bubbles initially located sufficiently close to both walls, the reentrant jet produced during collapse no longer points in the direction normal to the closest wall but at an angle toward the corner, (ii) the part of the emitted shock with the highest amplitude propagates in line with the jet, and (iii) the bubble migrates in that same direction during its collapse with a dependence on the stand-off distance, consistent with predictions made using Kelvin impulse. The location of maximum pressure along the walls is measured for the different initial stand-off distances. Using acoustic arguments, we find a semiempirical relationship to predict the initial stand-off distances for which the maximum pressure occurs in the corner. Here we find that when the bubble is sufficiently close to equidistant from each boundary, the maximum pressure is observed in the corner due to the water-hammer and implosion shocks reflecting off the boundaries and intersecting in the corner. We also show that when bubbles are initially attached to either wall the wall pressure produced can be significantly increased compared to bubbles detached from either wall.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2024

Plant‐produced SARS ‐ CoV ‐2 antibody engineered towards enhanced potency and in vivo efficacy

Summary Prevention of severe COVID‐19 disease by SARS‐CoV‐2 in high‐risk patients, such as immuno‐compromised individuals, can be achieved by administration of antibody prophylaxis, but producing antibodies can be costly. Plant expression platforms allow substantial lower production costs compared to traditional bio‐manufacturing platforms depending on mammalian cells in bioreactors. In this study, we describe the expression, production and purification of the originally human COVA2‐15 antibody in plants. Our plant‐produced mAbs demonstrated comparable neutralizing activity with COVA2‐15 produced in mammalian cells. Furthermore, they exhibited similar capacity to prevent SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in a hamster model. To further enhance these biosimilars, we performed three glyco‐ and protein engineering techniques. First, to increase antibody half‐life, we introduced YTE‐mutation in the Fc tail; second, optimization ofN‐linked glycosylation by the addition of a C‐terminal ER‐retention motif (HDEL), and finally; production of mAb in plant production lines lacking β‐1,2‐xylosyltransferase and α‐1,3‐fucosyltransferase activities (FX‐KO). These engineered biosimilars exhibited optimized glycosylation, enhanced phagocytosis and NK cell activation capacity compared to conventional plant‐produced S15 and M15 biosimilars, in some cases outperforming mammalian cell produced COVA2‐15. These engineered antibodies hold great potential for enhancingin vivoefficacy of mAb treatment against COVID‐19 and provide a platform for the development of antibodies against other emerging viruses in a cost‐effective manner.

Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology↗
DOE OSTI2021

Which Combinations of Environmental Conditions and Microphysical Parameter Values Produce a Given Orographic Precipitation Distribution?

This study applies an idealized modeling framework, alongside a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm, to explore which combinations of upstream environmental conditions and cloud microphysical parameter values can produce a particular precipitation distribution over an idealized two-dimensional, bell-shaped mountain. Simulations focus on orographic precipitation produced when an atmospheric river interacts with topography. MCMC-based analysis reveals that different combinations of parameter values produce a similar precipitation distribution, with the most influential parameters being relative humidity (RH), horizontal wind speed (U), surface potential temperature (θ sfc ), and the snow fall speed coefficient (A s ). RH, U, and A s exhibit interdependence: changes in one or more of these factors can be mitigated by compensating changes in the other(s) to produce similar orographic precipitation rates. The results also indicate that the parameter sensitivities and relationships can vary for spatial subregions and given different environmental conditions. In particular, high θ sfc values are more likely to produce the target precipitation rate and spatial distribution, and thus the ensemble of simulations shows a preference for liquid precipitation at the surface. The results presented here highlight the complexity of orographic precipitation controls, and have implications for flood and water management, observational efforts, and climate change.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Chapter 6: Recycling Plastic Waste to Produce Chemicals - A Techno-Economic Analysis and Life-Cycle Assessment

This study presents the results of a preliminary assessment on the technology, economics, and sustainability of using waste plastics as a feedstock to produce low molecular weight olefins via pyrolysis and gasification pathways. We also studied the formation of formaldehyde - an important polymer precursor - via the gasification of waste plastics. Process pathways for recovery of ethylene and propylene and production of formaldehyde from a simulated mixed plastic waste were constructed based on literature data. They included direct and indirect pathways based on either gasification or pyrolysis as the primary conversion step. Results of these studies have shown that significant economic challenges exist of producing olefins via pyrolysis and gasification, with the latter pathway especially difficult. Base costs of pyrolysis naphtha from waste plastics are higher when compared to the same material produced from fossil feedstocks. Base olefin costs for one direct route are two times higher than comparable costs from steam cracking of fossil naphtha. These costs are driven primarily by feedstock costs; some pyrolysis scenarios become more economically feasible when very low feedstock costs are used. Similarly, for gasification, the cost of methanol - the central intermediate - was found to be noticeable higher when produced by gasification of waste plastics compared to current selling prices, which negatively impacts all pathways that go through methanol as the central intermediate. Life-cycle assessment indicates that the production of pyrolysis naphtha from plastics is a carbon intensive operation; no major advantages were found in terms of greenhouse gas emissions for any of the pathways producing C2 and C3 olefins. The results of this study can serve as the baseline for future comparison to other plastic waste valorization processes.

BIOMASS FUELS,ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2024

The Novel Charfuel® Coal Refining Process 18 TPD Pilot Plant Project for Co- Producing an Upgraded Coal Product, and Commercially Valuable Co- Products: Area of Interest #3 – Coal Beneficiation Pilot Plant Testing (Final Report)

Operation of Carbon Fuels, LLC’s (“CF”) existing, permitted 18 TPD pilot plant located in Golden, Colorado using two individually ranked (ASTM D 388) coal types (two campaigns), employing the novel Charfuel® coal refining process to produce an upgraded coal product and a number of high-valued organic and inorganic coproducts (for which there presently exists large commercial markets) in order to produce engineering and product data which will then be utilized toward the design of a commercial scale integrated facility (pre-feed document). Carbon Fuels, LLC has developed the Charfuel® Coal Refining Process which refines domestically abundant, raw coal (in the same manner as crude oil is refined) to produce the identical, high value co-products that are refined from crude oil. Thus, gasoline, jet fuel, “green diesel”, fuel oil, and marine fuels, as well as petrochemicals such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and methanol are refined from raw coal using this process. The Charfuel® Coal Refining Process is not a coal conversion process, like pyrolysis, or indirect liquefaction. Nor is it an alternative energy system. Rather it is a coal refining process that has the ability to economically produce products traditionally associated with the refining of crude oil but using only abundant, raw coal as the refinery feed stock. The Charfuel® Coal Refining Process is more economical than crude oil refining and is environmentally benign. Therefore, this value added process yields a return on investment well above 50% for a commercial facility. Furthermore, the Charfuel® process, unlike alternatives such as ethanol and hydrogen, can utilize the existing transportation, delivery, and other petroleum based systems. Hence, there is no need for new engines, pipelines, tankers, or product acceptance. As a result, the profitability of the process is increased. Objectives: (1) Operation of the integrated 18 tpd pilot plant, using two coal types (ranks); (2) Demonstration of process flexibility in being able to produce different products (gas, liquid, and char), as well as determination of operating parameters for identifying scale up criteria for two coal types (ranks); (3) Generation of engineering and design information (process specifications) for use in designing a commercial scale plant (scale-up); (4) Determination of important environmental issues surrounding the process and the products such as fate of trace elements (mercury and other heavy metals) and distributions of SO2, NOx, and CO 2 by analysis of effluent streams; (5) Production of sufficient product to allow reliable commercial economic evaluation of both the refined coal product and the coproducts; and, (6) Assessment of longer-term reliability of unit operations. Period 1: reconfiguration of the 18 TPD plant to meet specific FOA requirements and to qualify the facility for operation; and, Period 2: operation of the 18 TPD plant for two campaigns using two coals types (ranks) which are widely commercially used and abundant - the first being a subbituminous (Powder River Basin (“PRB”)) coal, and the second a bituminous (Illinois #6) coal.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2024

Integrating the Design of Desalination Technologies into Produced Water Network Optimization

The oil and gas energy sector uses billions of gallons of water for hydraulic fracturing each year to extract oil and gas. The water injected into the ground for fracturing along with naturally occurring formation water from oil wells surfaces back in the form of produced water. Produced water can contain high concentrations of total dissolved solids and is unfit for reuse outside the oil and gas industry without desalination. In semi-arid shale plays, produced water desalination for beneficial reuse could play a crucial role in alleviating water shortages and addressing extreme drought conditions. In this poster we co-optimize the design and operation of desalination technologies along with operational decisions across produced water networks. A multi-period produced water network model with simplified split-fraction-based desalination nodes is developed. Rigorous steady-state desalination mathematical models based on mechanical vapor recompression are developed and embedded at the desalination sites in the network model. An optimal common design across all periods is ensured using global capacity constraints. The solution approach is demonstrated for multi-period planning problems on networks from the PARETO open-source library. Model formulation and challenges associated with scalability are discussed.

Naik, Sakshi↗
DOE OSTI2026

What is Produced Water Worth? The Total Value Proposition in the Marcellus Formation and Permian Basin

Produced water is a byproduct of oil and gas extraction and is known to contain lithium, a critical mineral. Produced water can also contain other minerals and commodities that are recoverable and have economic value. Here we focus on estimating the total value proposition of produced water in two important basins. That is, we assess the potential ‘sale price’ of all commodities that could be reasonably extracted from a unit volume of produced water. This value estimate helps better understand the economic and technological opportunities associated with produced water.

02 PETROLEUM↗