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NASA NTRS1982

The satellites of Uranus

Observations and the probable natures of the five known satellites of Uranus are reviewed. Photographic, photoelectric and CCD photometry of the satellites since 1961, although in agreement within experimental error, is not as mutually consistent as may be expected, and broadband JHK photometry falls in a portion of the J-H, H-K color diagram difficult to interpret. Spectrophotometry in the range 0.3-1.1 microns taken on two separate occasions is inconsistent, with only the relatively neutral reflectances of Titania and Oberon regarded as well established. Near-infrared spectrophotometry has revealed the presence of water ice or frost on the satellite surfaces, possibly in a very pure state, with spectra most similar to Ganymede. Estimations of the properties of the satellites from their surface geometric albedos, assumed mean densities and dynamics yield radii in the range 160-520 km, albedos on the order of 0.5 and densities of about 1.3 g/cu cm, similar to the icy Saturn satellites. The satellites are also believed to have formed after the event that caused the planet to tilt to its present obliquity.

Cruikshank, D. P.↗
NASA NTRS1982

Diameters and albedos of satellites of Uranus

Products of the masses of the five known satellites of Uranus, and estimates of their bulk densities and surface albedos, are used to infer their probable dimensions. Spectrophotometry has established the presence of water ice on the surfaces of all save Rhea, and the brightnesses of the satellites have been measured photoelectrically. The diameter measurements presented were made using a photometric/radiometric technique, whose recent recalibration, using independent solar system object measurements, has yielded absolute accuracies better than 5 per cent. The new albedo measurements show that Umbriel, Titania and Oberon are similar to the Jupiter moon Callisto, while Ariel resembles the Saturn moon Hyperion. The diameters of all four are similar to those of the large, icy Saturn satellites Rhea and Iapetus.

Brown, R. H.↗
NASA NTRS1982

The satellites of Jupiter and Saturn

The nature of the Jovian and Saturnian satellites as places, and their probable history, are discussed. Orbital data on the satellites are presented, including the radius, period, eccentricity, inclination, mass, density, albedo, and surface composition. The relationship between cratering and geologic time scales is reviewed. The major and intermediate satellites are categorized as giant, rocky, or icy, and their surface topography, internal heat sources, geologic activity, and impact crater density are discussed. The characteristics of Titan's atmosphere are covered. What is known of the small satellites of Saturn, the inner satellites of Jupiter, and the irregular outer satellites of Jupiter is assessed.

Morrison, D.↗
NASA NTRS1974

On the origin of the solar system. I

The empirical information on protostars is reviewed. 'Globules' are described, found to have the typical range of stellar masses and with gaseous compositions now well known thanks largely to radio astronomy. They also contain particulate matter identified as silicates, ice, and probably graphite and other carbon compounds. Current knowledge of the degree of stability of the planetary orbits over the past 4.5 b.y. is summarized. The statistics on the frequency and masses of asteroids and information on the Kirkwood gaps, both empirical and theoretical, are cited. An analogous discussion is made for the Rings of Saturn, including its extension observed in 1966 to the fourth Saturn satellite, Dione. The three main classes of meteorites - irons, stones, and carbonaceous chondrites - all appear to be of asteroidal origin and they yield the most direct evidence on the early thermal history of the solar system. The author sees in this evidence definite confirmation of the cold origin of the planetary system, followed by a hot phase due to the evolving sun that caused the dissolution of the solar nebula.

Kuiper, G. P.↗
NASA NTRS1975

Asteroid observations and planetary atmospheres analysis

Photoelectric observations of Eros and 30 other asteroids providing information on their surface characteristics, shape, and rotation axes are reported. Photographs of 18 asteroids and 4 comets yielding accurate position information on various dates were obtained. Photometric observations were made of the Saturn satellite lapetus, and electronographic images of the Uranus and Neptune satellites were obtained experimentally with a Spectracon tube to assess photometry by that method. Planetary patrol photographs of Venus and deconvolved area scans of Uranus were taken. UBV photometry of the Galilean satellites for the period 1973-1974 was completely analyzed and accepted for publication. An improved magnitude and color index for Minas were derived from 1974 area scans. A special photomultiplier tube with a suppressor grid was incorporated into a pulse-counting photometer with special added circuitry for carrying out the observations concerning the constancy of solar system dimensions over cosmic time.

Baum, W. A.↗
NASA NTRS1982

Voyages to Saturn

The Voyager mission to Saturn is explained in detail. A history of Saturn observations from ancient times to the present is given. The Voyager spacecraft and their instruments are described. An overview of planetary astronomy is presented. The text is supplemented by numerous black and white and color photographs. The Saturn satellites are discussed in detail, and preliminary pictorial maps of the satellites are given.

Morrison, D.↗
NASA NTRS1983

Eight-color photometry of Hyperion, Iapetus, and Phoebe

The Phoebe, Hyperion and Iapetus Saturn satellites are discussed in light of eight-color spectrophotometry, which together with observed V magnitudes and Voyager spacecraft-derived diameters yields geometric albedos of 0.07 for Iapetus, 0.06 for Phoebe, and maximum- and minimum-dimension based limits of 0.19 and 0.25 respectively for Hyperion. While both Hyperion and Iapetus have similar, very reddish spectra, it is noted that Hyperion has a much higher albedo than the dark side of Iapetus. The mean spectrum of Phoebe is much flatter, with a broad absorption feature near 1 micron. The determination of these optical differences between the surface materials of Phoebe and the dark side of Iapetus constrains the possible interaction modes between Phoebe and the other two satellites.

Tholen, D. J.↗
NASA NTRS1983

The atmosphere of Titan - An analysis of the Voyager 1 radio occultation measurements

The equatorial atmosphere of Titan was probed by means of two coherently related radio signals transmitted from Voyager 1 at 13.0 and 3.6 cm wavelengths during the November 12, 1980 occultation of the spacecraft by the Saturn satellite. An analysis of the differential dispersive frequency measurements did not reveal any ionization layers in the upper atmosphere of Titan. The gas refractivity data, which extend from the surface to about 200 km altitude, were interpreted in two different ways. In the first, it is assumed that N2 makes up virtually all of the atmosphere, with small amounts of CH4 and other hydrocarbons present. In the second interpretation of the refractivity data, it is assumed that the 3.5 km altitude level corresponds to the bottom of a CH4 cloud layer and that N2 and CH4 were perfectly mixed below this level.

Lindal, G. F.↗
NASA NTRS1983

Radiative equilibrium model of Titan's atmosphere

The present global radiative equilibrium model for the Saturn satellite Titan is restricted to the two-stream approximation, is vertically homogeneous in its scattering properties, and is spectrally divided into one thermal and two solar channels. Between 13 and 33% of the total incident solar radiation is absorbed at the planetary surface, and the 30-60 ratio of violet to thermal IR absorption cross sections in the stratosphere leads to the large temperature inversion observed there. The spectrally integrated mass absorption coefficient at thermal wavelengths is approximately constant throughout the stratosphere, and approximately linear with pressure in the troposphere, implying the presence of a uniformly mixed aerosol in the stratosphere. There also appear to be two regions of enhanced opacity near 30 and 500 mbar.

Samuelson, R. E.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Does crater 'saturation equilibrium' occur in the solar system?

The similarity in crater densities on the most heavily cratered surfaces throughout the solar system is statistically examined and discussed in terms of a 'saturation equilibrium' being achieved by cratering processes. This hypothesis accounts for (1) the similarity in maximum relative crater density, below certain theoretically predicted values, on all heavily cratered surfaces; (2) a levelling off at this same relative density among 100-m scale craters in populations on lunar maria and other sparsely cratered lunar surfaces; and (3) the approximate uniformity of maximum relative densities on Saturn satellites. The lunar frontside upland crater population, sometimes described as a well-preserved production function useful for interpreting other planetary surfaces, is found not to be a production function. It was modified by intercrater plains at least partly formed by early upland basaltic lava flooding.

Hartmann, W. K.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Unsolved problems in planetary ring dynamics

Voyager photographic data are used for microscopic and macroscopic analyses of the dynamics of the Saturn rings. Attention is given to particle collisions, local velocity dispersion, the particle size distribution, mechanisms governing the ring structure and interactive effects with Saturn satellite orbits. The mechanical properties and collision dynamics of the particles are discussed, along with models for perturbed and unperturbed disks. The forces involved and true scale of particle erosion are considered, as are instabilities in the rings, satellite torques, resonances, and the time scale for the evolution of the satellite orbits. Finally, the possibility that angular momentum exchanges are occurring between individual rings and satellite orbits is examined.

Borderies, N.↗
NASA NTRS1987

Studies of early intense cratering and possible saturation effects

Crater counts on Rhea were completed, to be compared and combined with independent counts by Steve Squyres; the material is now being integrated into a study of cratering on Rhea and other Saturn satellites by Squyres, Lissauer, and Hartmann. Special attention is being paid to lighting and other effects on the apparent changes in crater density from one region to another. An earlier proposal by the author on crater density was further tested. Brief preliminary results are given.

Hartmann, William K.↗
NASA NTRS1991

The shape of Tethys

After considering the most important relationships between density, rotation rate, shape, and internal structure on the basis of equilibrium figures, the shape of the Saturn satellite Tethys is established from limb-coordinate data. Attention is given to the shape's significance for Tethys' internal structure. It is alternatively concluded that Tethys is either differentiated, and possesses a small rocky core, or has been interpreted as possessing a mass that is too low by about 15 percent.

Thomas, P. C.↗
NASA NTRS2017

Organic Molecules On the Surfaces of Iapetus and Phoebe

Absorption bands of both aliphatic and aromatic organic molecules are found in the reflectance spectra of Saturn satellites Iapetus, Phoebe, and Hyperion obtained with the Cassini Visible-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS). The VIMS data do not fully resolve the individual bands of C-H functional groups specific to particular molecules, but instead show absorption envelopes representing blended clusters of the bands of aromatic (approximately 3.28 microns) and aliphatic (approximately 3.4 microns) hydrocarbons known in spectra of interstellar dust. In Cruikshank et al. (2014), we matched components of the unresolved hydrocarbon band envelopes with clusters of bands of a range of functional groups in specific types of organic compounds (e.g., normal and N-substituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, olefins, cycloalkanes, and molecules with lone-pair interactions of N and O with CH3+). In the work reported here, we revisit the spectra of Iapetus and Phoebe using VIMS data processed with improved radiometric and wavelength calibration (denoted RC19). The band envelopes of both aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons are now more clearly defined, corroborating the provisional assignment of specific classes of molecules in Cruikshank et al. 2014, but permitting a more reliable quantitative assessment of the relative contributions of those classes, and a revision to the earlier estimate of the ratio of the abundances of aromatic to aliphatic molecules.

Phoeb↗
NASA NTRS1991

Visual detection of 1981S13, Saturn's eighteenth satellite, and its role in the Encke gap

Careful inspection of many images taken by the Voyager spacecraft reveals the presence within the Encke gap of Saturn's eighteenth satellite. Its existence had been inferred from gravitational disturbances seen in Voyager data, and it falls close to the predicted orbit, its shepherding effect is responsible for keeping the Encke gap open, and it may also be the progenitor of a narrow ringlet within the gap.

Showalter, Mark R.↗
NASA NTRS1983

Theory of motion of Saturn's coorbiting satellites

A simple analytic theory describing the 1:1 orbital resonance is presented and applied to Saturn's coorbiting pair, 1980S1 and 1980S3. These satellites are very small and can approach to within 15,000 km, but are prevented from passing each other by their mutual gravitational interaction. The long-term stability of the S1-S3 orbital configuration is discussed in this paper, and a tie between the 1966 and 1980 observations is established.

Yoder, C. F.↗
NASA NTRS1992

New observations of Saturn's coorbital satellites

The strong planetary methane and hydrogen absorption at 2.0-2.4 microns are exploited in the present observations of the Saturnian coorbital satellites Janus and Epimetheus as they passed over the north pole of Saturn at superior conjunction. These observations confirm the orbital model results of Yoder at al. (1989), especially in the question as to the low density of both satellites; in addition, a much stronger solution is furnished which is essentially independent of 1966 data for Epimethius. The low density results are interpreted as indicative that the objects are composed of relatively pure water ice, but with porosities of the order of 30 percent.

Nicholson, Philip D.↗