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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 91 records · Page 5
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DOE OSTI2021

Graupel Precipitating From Thin Arctic Clouds With Liquid Water Paths Less Than 50 g m -2

Rimed precipitation growth can efficiently remove moisture and aerosols from the boundary layer, yet thin low-level Arctic mixed-phase clouds are generally thought to precipitate pristine and aggregated ice crystals. Here we present automated surface photographic measurements showing that only 34% of precipitation particles exhibit negligible riming and that graupel particles ≥ in diameter commonly fall from clouds with liquid water paths less than 50 g m -2 . Analyses indicate that significant riming enhancement can occur provided sustained updrafts of 0.4 m s -1 , consistent with those measured in Arctic clouds. A Lagrangian numerical simulation that tracks falling particles suggests that similar updraft speeds can account for about one half of the observed riming enhancement. Riming enhancement appears particularly likely when weak temperature inversions are observed at cloud top, but a full explanation remains to be determined.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Diurnal evolution of non-precipitating marine stratocumuli in a large-eddy simulation ensemble

Abstract. We explore the cloud system evolution of non-precipitating marine stratocumuli with a focus on the impacts of the diurnal cycle and free-tropospheric (FT) humidity based on an ensemble of 244 large-eddy simulations generated by perturbing initial thermodynamic profiles and aerosol conditions. Cases are categorized based on their degree of decoupling and the cloud liquid water path (LWPc, based on model columns with cloud optical depths greater than one). A budget analysis method is proposed to analyze the evolution of cloud water in both coupled and decoupled boundary layers. More coupled clouds start with a relatively low LWPc and cloud fraction (fc) but experience the least decrease in LWPc and fc during the daytime. More decoupled clouds undergo greater daytime reduction in LWPc and fc, especially those with higher LWPc at sunrise because they suffer from faster weakening of net radiative cooling. During the nighttime, a positive correlation between FT humidity and the LWPc emerges, consistent with higher FT humidity reducing both radiative cooling and the humidity jump, both of which reduce entrainment and increase LWPc. The LWPc is more likely to decrease during the nighttime for a larger LWPc and greater inversion base height (zi), conditions under which entrainment dominates as turbulence develops. In the morning, the rate of the LWPc reduction depends on the LWPc at sunrise, zi, and the degree of decoupling, with distinct contributions from subsidence and radiation.

Chen, Yao-Sheng (ORCID:0000000208354132)↗
DOE OSTI2025

Exploring Causal Relationships and Adjustment Timescales of Aerosol-Cloud Interactions in Geostationary Satellite Observations and CAM6 Using Wavelet Phase Coherence Analysis

We present for the first time within the cloud physics context, the application of wavelet phase coherence analysis to disentangle counteracting physical processes associated with the lead-lag phase difference between cloud-proxy liquid water path (LWP) and aerosol-proxy cloud droplet number concentration ( N d ) in an Eulerian framework using satellite-based observations and climate model outputs. This approach allows us to identify the causality and dominant adjustment timescales governing the correlation between LWP and N d . Satellite observations indicate a more prevalent positive correlation between daytime LWP and N d regardless of whether LWP leads or lags N d . The positive cloud water response, associated with precipitation processes, typically occurs within 1 hr, while the negative response resulting from entrainment drying, usually takes 2–4 hr. CAM6 displays excessively rapid negative responses along with overly strong negative cloud water response and insufficient positive response, leading to a more negative correlation between LWP and N d compared to observations.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Drizzle, Turbulence, and Density Currents Below Post Cold Frontal Open Cellular Marine Stratocumulus Clouds

Nine cases of postcold frontal marine stratocumulus clouds exhibiting open cellular mesoscale organization are analyzed to characterize the drizzle, turbulence, and density currents below them. Data collected by the vertically pointing Doppler cloud radar and multiple lidars part of the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Eastern North Atlantic (ENA) site are used in these analyses. A total of 251 drizzle shafts passed over the site with 76 shafts sampled for more than 15 min by the vertically pointing instruments. On average the drizzle shafts were ~18 km wide with below-cloud drizzle water path of ~40 g m −2 , cloud base rain rate of 7.78 mm day −1 , and cloud base drizzle modal diameter of 393 μm. The widths of the drizzle shafts did not exhibit any relationship with the cloud base rain rate, below-cloud drizzle water path, and the total water removed from the cloud. The downdrafts in the lowest 500 m within the drizzle cells strengthened with increasing cloud base rain rates, while the updrafts within drizzle cells did not exhibit this behavior. On average, the surface air density, pressure, water vapor mixing ratio, and wind speed along the background wind during the drizzle shaft were higher by 1.88 g m −3 , 8.60 Pa, 0.24 g kg −1 , and 1.22 m s −1 , respectively, from their background values. On the other hand, the surface air temperature was lower by 0.43 K during the drizzle shaft than its background value. The coincident measurements highlight the drizzle-turbulence-surface coupling in these cloud systems.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Analysis of aerosol cloud interactions with a consistent signal of meteorology and other influencing parameters

Quantifying the impact of aerosols on cloud micro/macro physical properties and estimating the signature of Aerosol Cloud Interactions (ACI) is one of the challenging tasks in atmospheric sciences. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ERA-5 reanalysis data are employed to systematically study the ACI over the monsoon region in Pakistan. Based on the monsoon occurrence and rainfall intensity, the whole region is divided into three sub-regions labeled as highly intensive (R1), moderately intensive (R2) and weak (R3) monsoon region. The results indicate that the monthly mean Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) peaks in the summer monsoon months (Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep). Here, the well-known Twomey effect whereby the Cloud Droplet Radius (CDR) decreases with increasing AOD holds only over R3; the opposite effects (Anti-Twomey effect) are found over R1 and R2, all passing the test of statistical significance (p<0.05). The multi-year AOD is found to be positively correlated with Cloud Liquid Water Path (CLWP) and Cloud Optical Depth (COD) over R1 and R2, suggesting that thicker clouds containing more water droplets are formed in polluted atmosphere. Over R3, decreases in CLWP and COD are found with increasing AOD only when AOD is less than~0.325. The analysis of ACI over R1 and R2 during the winter months shows similar but stronger responses of CDR, CLWP and COD to the variation in AOD. The weaker responses during the summer monsoon season may attributed to the occurrence of high level cloud and unstable atmospheric condition. Further investigation of the influences of Relative Humidity and pressure vertical velocity on the CDR-AOD relationships shows that although the magnitude of the CDR-AOD correlations change with meteorological conditions, the sign of correlations remain unchanged with meteorological conditions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Bounding Global Aerosol Radiative Forcing of Climate Change

Abstract Aerosols interact with radiation and clouds. Substantial progress made over the past 40 years in observing, understanding, and modeling these processes helped quantify the imbalance in the Earth's radiation budget caused by anthropogenic aerosols, called aerosol radiative forcing, but uncertainties remain large. This review provides a new range of aerosol radiative forcing over the industrial era based on multiple, traceable, and arguable lines of evidence, including modeling approaches, theoretical considerations, and observations. Improved understanding of aerosol absorption and the causes of trends in surface radiative fluxes constrain the forcing from aerosol‐radiation interactions. A robust theoretical foundation and convincing evidence constrain the forcing caused by aerosol‐driven increases in liquid cloud droplet number concentration. However, the influence of anthropogenic aerosols on cloud liquid water content and cloud fraction is less clear, and the influence on mixed‐phase and ice clouds remains poorly constrained. Observed changes in surface temperature and radiative fluxes provide additional constraints. These multiple lines of evidence lead to a 68% confidence interval for the total aerosol effective radiative forcing of ‐1.6 to ‐0.6 W m −2 , or ‐2.0 to ‐0.4 W m −2 with a 90% likelihood. Those intervals are of similar width to the last Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment but shifted toward more negative values. The uncertainty will narrow in the future by continuing to critically combine multiple lines of evidence, especially those addressing industrial‐era changes in aerosol sources and aerosol effects on liquid cloud amount and on ice clouds.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

First Assessment of Cloud‐Land Coupling in LASSO Large‐Eddy Simulations

Abstract To enhance our understanding of cloud simulations over land, this study provides the first assessment of coupling between cloud and land surface in the Large‐Eddy Simulation (LES) Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Symbiotic Simulation and Observation (LASSO) activity for the shallow convection scenario. The analysis of observation data reveals a diurnal cycle of cloud‐land coupling, which co‐varies with surface fluxes. However, coupled (or decoupled) cumulus clouds are inadequately simulated, manifesting as a too‐high (or low) occurrence frequency during the afternoon. This discrepancy is mirrored by the overestimated cloud liquid water path and cloud‐top height. These overestimations are linked to the overpredicted boundary‐layer development and the easier trigger of shallow convection misrepresented in LES runs. Our study underscores the need to improve the representations of boundary‐layer processes and cloud‐land interactions within LES to better simulate shallow clouds in the future.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Improving Predictability of Mixed-Phase Clouds and Aerosol Interactions in the Community Earth System Model (CESM) with ARM Measurements

The objective of this project is to improve the simulation and predictability of mixed-phase clouds and aerosol interactions in the Community Earth System Model (CESM) through comparisons with the DOE ARM observations. There are four major goals of the proposed study: (1) Improve the representation of ice microphysical processes in mixed-phase clouds; (2) Develop a long-term multi-sensor mixed-phase cloud dataset; (3) Test the performance of improved ice microphysics in CESM-CAM5 with the ARM data; and (4) Examine mixed-phase cloud microphysics-aerosol-dynamics-radiation interactions in CESM-CAM5. In this project, we have (1) Improved the representation of ice microphysical processes in mixed-phase clouds that include ice nucleation, ice depositional growth through the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen (WBF) process, feedbacks between cloud microphysics, dynamics and radiation, and provides links to aerosol properties in the Community Earth System Model (CESM)-Community Atmosphere Model version 5 (CAM5); (2) Developed a long-term multi-sensor mixed-phase cloud dataset. The mixed-phase cloud retrieval algorithms are improved by refining the phase determinations and ice number concentration retrievals. A multi-year mixed-phase cloud observation dataset (1999-2004; October 2013-February 2017) is regenerated at the ARM Barrow site with the improved algorithms. The dataset has been used in the global model evaluation to improve the model parameterizations; (3) Tested the performance of improved ice microphysics in CESM-CAM5 with the ARM data. CESM-CAM5 is run in the DOE Cloud-Associated Parameterizations Testbed (CAPT) and in the single-column model (SCM) mode to facilitate comparison with ARM observations. Multi-year CAPT simulations of seasonal variations of cloud microphysical properties, cloud liquid water path (LWP) and ice water path (IWP), cloud longwave and shortwave forcings, cloud occurrence frequency are evaluated against the ARM multi-sensor mixed-phase cloud retrievals; and (4) Examined mixed-phase cloud microphysics-aerosol-dynamics-radiation interactions in CESM-CAM5 that include the impacts of different ice nucleation mechanisms, sensitivity to dust IN concentration, treatment of the WBF process on mixed-phase cloud properties. Aerosol effect on mixed-phase clouds through the liquid phase (droplet activation) and ice phase processes (e.g., the glaciation indirect effect) is investigated.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Daytime variation in the aerosol indirect effect for warm marine boundary layer clouds in the eastern North Atlantic

Abstract. Warm boundary layer clouds in the eastern North Atlantic region exhibit significant diurnal variations in cloud properties. However, the diurnal cycle of the aerosol indirect effect (AIE) for these clouds remains poorly understood. This study takes advantage of recent advancements in the spatial resolution of geostationary satellites to explore the daytime variation in the AIE by estimating the cloud susceptibilities to changes in cloud droplet number concentration (Nd). Cloud retrievals for the month of July over 4 years (2018–2021) from the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI) on Meteosat-11 over this region are analyzed. Our results reveal a significant “U-shaped” daytime cycle in susceptibilities of the cloud liquid water path (LWP), cloud albedo, and cloud fraction. Clouds are found to be more susceptible to Nd perturbations at noon and less susceptible in the morning and evening. The magnitude and sign of cloud susceptibilities depend heavily on the cloud state defined by cloud LWP and precipitation conditions. Non-precipitating thin clouds account for 44 % of all warm boundary layer clouds in July, and they contribute the most to the observed daytime variation. Non-precipitating thick clouds are the least frequent cloud state (10 %), and they exhibit more negative LWP and albedo susceptibilities compared to thin clouds. Precipitating clouds are the dominant cloud state (46 %), but their cloud susceptibilities show minimal variation throughout the day. We find evidence that the daytime variation in LWP and albedo susceptibilities for non-precipitating clouds is influenced by a combination of the diurnal transition between non-precipitating thick and thin clouds and the “lagged” cloud responses to Nd perturbations. The daytime variation in cloud fraction susceptibility for non-precipitating thick clouds can be attributed to the daytime variation in cloud morphology (e.g., overcast or broken). The dissipation and development of clouds do not adequately explain the observed variation in cloud susceptibilities. Additionally, daytime variation in cloud susceptibility is primarily driven by variation in the intensity of cloud response rather than the frequency of occurrence of cloud states. Our results imply that polar-orbiting satellites with an overpass time at 13:30 LT underestimate daytime mean values of cloud susceptibility, as they observe susceptibility daily minima in the study region.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Toward Understanding the Simulated Phase Partitioning of Arctic Single-Layer Mixed-Phase Clouds in E3SM

21 Mixed-phase clouds are widespread in the Arctic and have substantial impacts on the 22 surface energy budget, sea ice extent, and regional climate. Significant changes are found in the 23 modeled phase partitioning of Arctic mixed-phase clouds in the newly developed U.S. 24 Department of Energy (DOE) Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) Atmosphere Model 25 version 1 (EAMv1) compared to its predecessor (CAM5/EAMv0). The mixed-phase clouds 26 simulated by EAMv1 is overly dominated by super-cool liquid which is often underestimated by 27 CAM5. Compared to CAM5, EAMv1 has made several important changes in its cloud physical 28 parameterizations, including using CLUBB to unify shallow convection, PBL turbulence, and 29 cloud macrophysics, as well as updating the MG two-moment cloud microphysics scheme and 30 using the CNT heterogeneous ice nucleation scheme to replace the Meyers scheme for mixed- 31 phase clouds. To understand which of the newly-implemented physical parameterizations is 32 responsible for the change of modeled mixed-phase cloud phase partitioning in EAMv1, 33 sensitivity tests are conducted by utilizing the short-term hindcast approach and results are 34 compared to the observations from the ARM Mixed-Phase Arctic Cloud Experiment (M-PACE) 35 field campaign. 36 It is found that although each scheme contributes to the decrease of cloud ice water 37 content (IWC) and increase of cloud liquid water content (LWC), only the combined effect of 38 CLUBB and CNT can explain the significant underestimation of IWC. By examining the budgets 39 of cloud microphysical processes, CLUBB is found to play a dominant role due to the fact that 40 CLUBB does not diagnoses cloud ice phase water in its assumed joint PDF method and thus may 41 not provide sufficient cloud ice to initialize ice phase microphysical processes such as the growth 42 of ice crystals through vapor deposition. Although a more effective heterogeneous ice nucleation 43 may alleviate the underestimation of IWC, the ice phase process in CLUBB requires urgent 44 attention in the future model development.

Zhang, Meng↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dual-frequency (Ka-band and G-band) radar estimates of liquid water content profiles in shallow clouds

The profile of the liquid water content (LWC) in clouds provides fundamental information for understanding the internal structure of clouds, their radiative effects, propensity to precipitate, and degree of entrainment and mixing with the surrounding environment. In principle, differential absorption techniques based on coincident dual-frequency radar reflectivity observations have the potential to provide the LWC profile. Previous differential frequency radar reflectivity (DFR) efforts were challenged by the fact that the measurable differential attenuation for small quantities of LWC is usually comparable to the system measurement error. This typically renders the retrieval impractical, as the uncertainty can become many times greater than the retrieved value itself. Theoretically, this drawback can be mitigated following two interconnected approaches: (1) increasing the frequency separation between the dual-frequency radar system to measure greater differential attenuation and (2) increasing the radar operating frequency to reduce the instrument measurement random error. Our recently developed 239 GHz radar was deployed during the Eastern Pacific Cloud Aerosol Precipitation Experiment (EPCAPE) along with a variety of collocated remote sensing and in situ instruments. We have combined Ka-band (35 GHz) and G-band (239 GHz) observations to retrieve the LWC from more than 100 vertical profiles of shallow clouds with typical amounts of LWC smaller than 1 g m -3 . We theoretically and experimentally demonstrate that the Ka-band and G-band pair of frequencies offers at least a 65 % relative improvement in the LWC retrieval sensitivity compared to previous works reported in the literature using lower-frequency radars. This new technique provides a missing capability to determine the LWC in the challenging low liquid water path (LWP) range (< 200 g m -2 ) and suggests a way forward to characterize microphysical and dynamical processes more precisely in shallow clouds.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Interconnection of Aerosol‐Cloud Interactions and Cloud Feedback Through Warm Rain Process

Recent research has revealed a correlation within the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) simulations: models exhibiting more pronounced warming due to positive cloud feedback simultaneously show enhanced cooling from aerosol‐cloud interactions (ACI). However, the interplay between ACI and cloud feedback is not well understood in these models. Our study addresses this gap by modifying the autoconversion rate in two Earth system models (ESMs), elucidating how ACI could connect with cloud feedback through the warm rain process. We find that higher autoconversion rates, which are associated with stronger ACI, suppress the increase in cloud liquid water path (LWP) and cloud optical depth with warming by enhancing the precipitation efficiency over the extratropical regions, leading to a larger positive cloud feedback. This study offers new insights into the compensatory mechanism between ACI and cloud feedback through the warm rain process and highlights the importance of constraining the autoconversion parameterization in models.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Impacts of long-range-transported mineral dust on summertime convective cloud and precipitation: a case study over the Taiwan region

As one of the most abundant atmospheric aerosols and effective ice nuclei, mineral dust affects clouds and precipitation in the Earth system. Here numerical experiments are carried out to investigate the impacts of dust aerosols on summertime convective clouds and precipitation over the mountainous region of Taiwan by acting as ice-nucleating particles. We run the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) with the Morrison two-moment and spectral-bin microphysics (SBM) schemes at 3 km resolution, using dust number concentrations from a global chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem-APM). The case study indicates that the long-range-transported mineral dust, with relatively low number concentrations, can notably affect the properties of convective clouds (ice and liquid water contents, cloud top height, and cloud coverage) and precipitation (spatial pattern and intensity). The effects of dust are evident during strong convective periods, with significantly increased ice water contents in the mixed-phase regime via the enhanced heterogeneous freezing. With both the Morrison and SBM schemes, we see the invigoration effects of dust aerosols on the convective intensity through enhanced condensation and deposition latent heating. The low-altitude dust particles are uplifted to the freezing level by updrafts, which, in turn, enhance the convective cloud development through immersion freezing and convective invigoration. Compared to the Morrison scheme, the SBM scheme predicts more realistic precipitation and different invigoration effects of dust. The differences are partially attributed to the saturation adjustment approach utilized in the bulk scheme, which leads to a stronger enhancement of condensation at midlatitudes to low altitudes and a weaker deposition increase at the upper level.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Effects of Wind Shear and Aerosol Conditions on the Organization of Precipitating Marine Stratocumulus Clouds

Here this study examines how wind shear affects precipitating marine stratocumulus clouds under different cloud droplet number concentrations (N d ). We performed a series of large eddy simulations (LES) of nocturnal marine stratocumulus clouds using Cloud Model 1 (CM1). The simulations show that N d is the dominant factor for cloud cellular organization in this cloud regime rather than wind shear. Low N d characterizes the open cellular structure with a high in-cloud liquid water path (LWP). When wind shear is increased, the cloud fraction tends to decrease along with LWP, suggesting the cloud top region is significantly influenced by the entrainment and mixing of dry air from the free troposphere. We also examine cold pools in open and closed cellular clouds. Open-cell clouds produce larger and deeper cold pools compared to closed-cell clouds. Interestingly, cold pools can exist without surface precipitation and are produced by evaporation of light precipitation (drizzle) below the cloud base with weak downdrafts. The evaporation of raindrops and drizzle play an important role in initiating new convection, particularly where colliding outflows occur downstream of the cloud. This secondary convection contributes to the development and maintenance of the cloud cellular organization and formation.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Dimensionless parameters for cloudy Rayleigh-Bénard convection: Supersaturation, Damköhler, and Nusselt numbers

In steady-state Rayleigh-Bénard convection, heat is transported by turbulent thermal convection from the bottom, hot surface to the top, cold surface, leading to a height-independent sensible heat flux. When water vapor is present and cloud formation occurs, there is also an additional latent heat flux. Heat transport in cloudy Rayleigh-Bénard convection depends on turbulent flow as well as the microphysical state of the clouds: specifically, whether substantial supersaturations exist and whether cloud liquid water is removed through sedimentation/precipitation. In this article we bridge between the Rayleigh-Bénard convection literature and the atmospheric literature. We express the governing equations for cloudy convection in dimensionless form, thereby explicitly identifying the governing parameters relevant to the cloudy case, including Schmidt, Damköhler, supersaturation, and sedimentation numbers. We further connect to the atmospheric literature by obtaining a Nusselt number (dimensionless heat flux) for a cloud-convection system, directly from the conservation equations for temperature and water vapor. This flux has the same form as that identified by Zhang et al. [L. Zhang, K. L. Chong, and K.-Q. Xia, J. Fluid Mech. 874, 1041 (2019)] for convection with water vapor, but is extended to the cloudy case. For equal thermal and water vapor diffusivities, the flux corresponds to the widely used atmospheric quantities equivalent temperature and moist static energy. Using large eddy simulation (LES) of an idealized cloudy Rayleigh-Bénard convection system with fixed boundary conditions, we find that the equivalent heat flux (Nusselt number) is only weakly dependent on the microphysical details of the system, such as liquid water mixing ratio and cloud droplet number concentration. Finally, from the results, we show the vertical profiles of sensible and latent heat fluxes depend on the liquid water content, whereas the equivalent heat flux remains a constant throughout the height of the chamber.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

A Technique for Estimating Liquid Droplet Diameter and Liquid Water Content in Stratocumulus Clouds Using Radar and Lidar Measurements

This paper describes a technique for estimating the liquid water content (LWC) and a characteristic particle diameter in stratocumulus clouds using radar and lidar observations. The uncertainty in LWC estimate from radar and lidar measurements is significantly reduced once the characteristic particle diameter is known. The technique is independent of the drop size distribution. It is applicable for a broad range of W-band reflectivity Z between -30 and 0 dBZ and all values of lidar backscatter β observations. No partitioning of cloud or drizzle is required on the basis of an arbitrary threshold of Z as in prior studies. A method for estimating droplet diameter and LWC was derived from the electromagnetic simulations of radar and lidar observations. In situ stratocumulus cloud and drizzle probe spectra were input to the electromagnetic simulation. The retrieved droplet diameter and LWC were validated using in situ measurements from the southeastern Pacific Ocean. The retrieval method was applied to radar and lidar measurements from the northeastern Pacific. Uncertainty in the retrieved droplet diameter and LWC that are due to the measurement errors in radar and lidar backscatter measurements are 7% and 14%, respectively. The retrieved LWC was validated using the concurrent G-band radiometer estimates of the liquid water path.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗