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DOE OSTI2024

Modeling and Proof-of-Concept of a Blackbody-Based Calibration Method in the InfraBREAD Detector

The Broadband Reflector Experiment for Axion Detection (BREAD) is an ongoing collaboration searching for the conversion of yet undiscovered axion-like dark matter particles to photons in the presence of a magnetic field. InfraBREAD, a pilot experiment realization of BREAD, uses a superconducting nanowire single photon detector (SNSPD), a high-efficiency and low-noise device, to specifically detect infrared-range photons produced by $\mathcal{O}$(eV) axion-like particles. The unique BREAD coaxial reflector setup allows for the focusing of converted signal photons to a 1mm $\times$ 1mm SNSPD. However, when the detector is cooled to cryogenic temperatures during operation, uneven thermal contraction of reflector components may lead to a small shift in the location of the focal spot. A novel calibration method using blackbody radiation is proposed to locate the true focal spot of the detector \textit{in situ}. Through ray tracing simulations done in FRED Optical Engineering Software, this method is demonstrated to locate the focus to within $\SI{50}{\micro\metre}$ in the axial dimension. Additionally, it is demonstrated that the blackbody photon source used in this calibration must be at a temperature of at least $\SI{15}{\kelvin}$ to $\SI{40}{\kelvin}$, depending on the sensitivity of the SNSPD.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Refinement and Modeling of a Blackbody-Based Calibration Method in the InfraBREAD Detector

The Broadband Reflector Experiment for Axion Detection (BREAD) is an ongoing experiment searching for the conversion of yet undiscovered axion-like dark matter particles to photons in the presence of a magnetic field. InfraBREAD, a sub-experiment of BREAD, uses a superconducting nanowire single photon detector (SNSPD), a high-efficiency and low-noise device, to specifically detect infrared-range photons produced by $\mathcal{O}$(eV) axion-like particles. The unique BREAD reflector setup allows for the focusing of all converted signal photons to a 1mm $\times$ 1mm SNSPD. However, when the detector is cooled to cryogenic temperatures during operation, uneven thermal contraction of reflector components may lead to a small shift in the location of the focal spot. A novel calibration method using blackbody radiation is proposed to locate the true focal spot of the detector \textit{in situ}. Through ray tracing simulations done in FRED Optical Engineering Software, this method is demonstrated to locate the focus to within 50 $\mu$m in three dimensions.

Rao, Shardul↗
DOE OSTI2024

Refinement and Modeling of a Blackbody-Based Calibration Method in the InfraBREAD Detector

The Broadband Reflector Experiment for Axion Detection (BREAD) is an ongoing collaboration searching for the conversion of yet undiscovered axion-like dark matter particles to photons in the presence of a magnetic field. InfraBREAD, an experiment of BREAD, uses a superconducting nanowire single photon detector (SNSPD), a high-efficiency and low-noise device, to specifically detect infrared-range photons produced by $\mathcal{O}$(eV) axion-like particles. The unique BREAD reflector setup allows for the focusing of converted signal photons to a 1mm $\times$ 1mm SNSPD. However, when the detector is cooled to cryogenic temperatures during operation, uneven thermal contraction of reflector components may lead to a small shift in the location of the focal spot. A novel calibration method using blackbody radiation is proposed to locate the true focal spot of the detector \textit{in situ}. Through ray tracing simulations done in FRED Optical Engineering Software, this method is demonstrated to locate the focus to within $\SI{50}{\micro\metre}$ in the $z$ dimension.

Rao, Shardul↗
DOE OSTI2022

Future Advances in Photon-Based Neutrino Detectors: A SNOWMASS White Paper

We discuss here new, enabling technologies for future photon-based neutrino detectors. These technologies touch nearly every aspect of such detectors: new scintillating materials, new methods of loading isotopes, new photon sensors and collectors, new approaches to simulation and analysis, and new front-end electronics and DAQ ideas. Of particular interest are technologies that enable broad physics programs in hybrid Cherenkov/scintillation detectors, such as slow fluors, water-based liquid scintillator, and spectral sorting of photons. Several new large-scale detector ideas are also discussed, including hybrid detectors like Theia, ArTEMIS, and generic slow-fluor detectors, as well as the very different SLIPs and LiquidO approaches to instrumenting photon-based detectors. A program of demonstrators for future detectors, including ANNIE, Eos, and NuDOT are also discussed.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Highly excited electron cyclotron for QCD axion and dark-photon detection

We propose using highly excited cyclotron states of a trapped electron to detect meV axion and dark-photon dark matter, marking a significant improvement over our previous proposal and demonstration [One-electron quantum cyclotron as a milli-ev dark-photon detector, .]. When the axion mass matches the cyclotron frequency ω c , the cyclotron state is resonantly excited, with a transition probability proportional to its initial quantum number, n c . The sensitivity is enhanced by taking n c ∼ 10 6 ( 0.1 meV ω c ) 2 . By optimizing key experimental parameters, we minimize the required averaging time for cyclotron detection to t ave ∼ 10 − 6 s, permitting detection of such a highly excited state before its decay. An open–end-cap trap design enables the external photon signal to be directed into the trap, rendering our background-free detector compatible with large focusing cavities, such as the BREAD proposal, while capitalizing on their strong magnetic fields. Furthermore, the axion conversion rate can be coherently enhanced by incorporating layers of dielectrics with alternating refractive indices within the cavity. Collectively, these optimizations enable us to probe the QCD axion parameter space from 0.1 to 2.3 meV (25–560 GHz), covering a substantial portion of the predicted postinflationary QCD axion mass range. This sensitivity corresponds to probing the kinetic mixing parameter of the dark photon down to ε ≈ 2 × 10 − 16 . Published by the American Physical Society 2025

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Focusing Optics for Axion Detection: Simulating Sensing Enhancements of Photons in InfraBREAD

The Broadband Reflector Experiment for Axion Detection (BREAD) will search for axions, a promising particle candidate for dark matter, in the high mass range of [$10^{-3}$,1]eV. BREAD acts like a telescope for dark matter, using a parabolic reflector to direct axion-induced photons onto a precise focal spot. InfraBREAD is the experimental version designed to detect photons resulting from axions with infrared frequency using a 1mm × 1mm Superconducting Nanowire Singe Photon Detector (SNSPD). However, at this frequency scale two problems arise: 1) the focal spot becomes smeared across an area larger than the size of the SNSPD detector; 2) any millimeter-scale misalignment shifts in the SNSPD can greatly diminish photon signal. This study performed simulations of novel optical configurations of lenses and reflectors placed around the SNSPD to achieve a greater efficiency than the SNSPD alone through both of these effects. One optical setup was identified called the “Parabolo id to Winston Cone (PTW) Configuration,” which exploits the optics of parabolic reflectors to focus incoming photons from the larger area of the smeared focal spot onto the smaller 1mm 2 area of the detector. The PTW configuration demonstrated overall improvements in efficiency by around 10% through misalignment shifts, with a maximal improvement of 55% in one region.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Develop BNNT based cryopumps and detectors

Jefferson Lab Tasks to include period for performance of each task: 1. Design and fabricate initial test apparatus for cryosorber capacity comparison (month 0-3), 2. Test cryosorption capacity of BNNT materials (month 3-9) and alternate materials, 3. Design and fabricate cryopump modifications to accommodate BNNT material (month 9-15), 4. Provide suitable cryopump, electronics and vacuum instrumentation for the cryopump (month 12-18), and 5. Perform testing of BNNT modified cryopump at UHV-XHV pressure range (month 15-24). Modification 1: 6. Design initial detector test apparatus that incorporates BNNT material (months 0-1), 7. Provide photon detector as needed for tests (months 1-12), and 8. Perform tests (months 1-12). BNNT, LLC to 9. Provide Fibril BNNT™ for evaluation and cryopump (month 3-9), 10. Fabricate portions of modifications for cryopump (month 9-15), 11. Integrate Fibril BNNT™ into the cryopump (month 9-15), and 12. Perform regular vacuum testing of the cryopump (month 12-15). Modification 1: 13. Construct BNNT portions of detector test apparatus (months 0-2), 14. Provide BNNT material for detector tests (months 0-9), and 15. Assist in detector tests (months 1-12).

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Ultrafast radiographic imaging and tracking: An overview of instruments, methods, data, and applications

Ultrafast radiographic imaging and tracking (U-RadIT) use state-of-the-art ionizing particle and light sources to experimentally study sub-nanosecond transients or dynamic processes in physics, chemistry, biology, geology, materials science and other fields. These processes are fundamental to modern technologies and applications, such as nuclear fusion energy, advanced manufacturing, communication, and green transportation, which often involve one mole or more atoms and elementary particles, and thus are challenging to compute by using the first principles of quantum physics or other forward models. One of the central problems in U-RadIT is to optimize information yield through, e.g. high-luminosity X-ray and particle sources, efficient imaging and tracking detectors, novel methods to collect data, and large-bandwidth online and offline data processing, regulated by the underlying physics, statistics, and computing power. We review and highlight recent progress in: (a.) Detectors such as high-speed complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) cameras, hybrid pixelated array detectors integrated with Timepix4 and other application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), and digital photon detectors; (b.) U-RadIT modalities such as dynamic phase contrast imaging, dynamic diffractive imaging, and four-dimensional (4D) particle tracking; (c.) U-RadIT data and algorithms such as neural networks and machine learning, and (d.) Applications in ultrafast dynamic material science using XFELs, synchrotrons and laser-driven sources. Hardware-centric approaches to U-RadIT optimization are constrained by detector material properties, low signal-to-noise ratio, high cost and long development cycles of critical hardware components such as ASICs. Interpretation of experimental data, including comparisons with forward models, is frequently hindered by sparse measurements, model and measurement uncertainties, and noise. Alternatively, U-RadIT make increasing use of data science and machine learning algorithms, including experimental implementations of compressed sensing. Machine learning and artificial intelligence approaches, refined by physics and materials information, may also contribute significantly to data interpretation, uncertainty quantification and U-RadIT optimization.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Quantum Random Walk Simulator Using Ultrafast Optical Switches

Quantum random walk processes have many intriguing applications in high energy physics including the simulation of parton shower evolution. We will present the design and initial results of a fiber loop time-bin quantum walk architecture using the hardware platform already in operation at the Fermilab Quantum Network in which the state of the photon is defined by its time-of-arrival. The fiber loop consists of an unbalanced Mach-Zehnder interferometer implemented using an ultrafast electro-optical switch. The input switch controls the photon path within the interferometer, while the output switch will direct the photon back into the interferometer or to single photon detectors to measure the probability distribution of arrival times. Depending on which path the photon takes each pass through the loop, its wave function will interfere on these optical switches similar to quantum interference on a beam splitter. This work is an important step towards utilizing real-world advantages of quantum information protocols to solve problems in high energy physics.

Cameron, Andrew [Fermilab]↗
DOE OSTI2020

First Calorimetric Energy Reconstruction of Beam Events with ARAPUCA Light Detector in ProtoDUNE-SP

ProtoDUNE Single Phase at CERN is the large scale prototype for the far detector of the future DUNE experiment. ProtoDUNE is in stable operation since Oct. 2018 at the CERN Neutrino Platform. Test beam data in the energy range of sub-GeV to a few GeV were collected in fall 2018 providing a set of key measurements. Particles (electrons, protons, pions, muons and kaons) are identified combining information from a set of beam-line detectors (Time of Flight, Cherenkov) and TPC reconstruction. Three different technologies are implemented in the protoDUNE photon detector system (PDS). Results from the ARAPUCA response, one of the PDS components, are presented providing first calorimetric energy measurements and particle ID of beam events from LAr scintillation light signals.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2025

High-frequency gravitational wave detection by the BREAD experiment

The use of experiments searching for light axion dark matter as high-frequency gravitational wave detectors has garnered increasing attention in recent years. We explore the capabilities of the Broadband Reflector Experiment for Axion Detection (BREAD) in probing the GW parameter space and study the directional dependence of its coverage. This detector can investigate frequencies ranging from 0.05 to 200 THz. We find that by employing single photon detectors, BREAD is sensitive to GWs with characteristic strains as low as 10 −21 at 0.1 THz and 10 −25 at 200 THz with a year exposure time, making it competitive with other proposals operating at similar frequencies.

axions↗
DOE OSTI2024

Quantum sensing for fundamental physics efforts at SQMS

One of the areas of research of the Superconducting Quantum Systems and Materials (SQMS) center is the application of quantum sensing to fundamental physics searches, demonstrating that quantum sensors can greatly improve the sensitivity of experiments searching for Beyond the Standard Model (BSM) physics, or performing high-precision measurements. Theorists have developed many ideas for BSM physics that would result in interactions that can in principle be detected, but with signals small enough that they haven t been observed yet. In this field, the capability to lower the detector s thermal noise to few or dozens of mK, and to use QIS technologies such as Josephson Parametric Amplifiers and photon counters (in-situ or itinerant) enable us to reach unprecedented sensitivities and faster scan rates. Here is presented an overview of the quantum sensing efforts at SQMS [1], focusing on theoretical advancements and experimental searches for Dark Sector particles (as dark matter candidates and not), gravitational waves, and precision measurements. The experiments conducted, or under preparation, include axion dark matter (DM) [2, 3], dark photon DM searches [4,5], light-shining-through-wall experiments [6], cavity-based searches for high frequency gravitational waves [7], and measurements of the electron magnetic moment [8]. [1] Berlin, A., et al. "Searches for new particles, dark matter, and gravitational waves with SRF cavities." arXiv preprint arXiv:2203.12714 (2022). [2] Giaccone, B., et al. "Design of axion and axion dark matter searches based on ultra high Q SRF cavities." arXiv preprint arXiv:2207.11346 (2022). [3] Braggio, C., et al. "Quantum-enhanced sensing of axion dark matter with a transmon-based single microwave photon counter." arXiv preprint arXiv:2403.02321 (2024). [4] Fan, X., et al. "One-electron quantum cyclotron as a milli-eV dark-photon detector." Physical review letters 129.26 (2022): 261801. [5] Cervantes, R., et al. "Deepest sensitivity to wavelike dark photon dark matter with superconducting radio frequency cavities." Physical Review D 110.4 (2024): 043022. [6] Romanenko, A., et al. "Search for dark photons with superconducting radio frequency cavities." Physical review letters 130.26 (2023): 261801. [7] Berlin, A., et al. "Electromagnetic cavities as mechanical bars for gravitational waves." Physical Review D 108.8 (2023): 084058. [8] Fan, X., et al. "Measurement of the electron magnetic moment." Physical review letters 130.7 (2023): 071801.

Giaccone, Bianca↗
DOE OSTI2023

The large-area hybrid-optics CLAS12 RICH: First years of data-taking

The CLAS12 deep-inelastic scattering experiment at the upgraded 12 GeV continuous electron beam accelerator facility of Jefferson Lab conjugates luminosity and wide acceptance to study the 3D nucleon structure in the yet poorly explored valence region, and to perform precision measurements in hadron spectroscopy. A large area ring-imaging Cherenkov detector has been designed to achieve the required hadron identification in the momentum range from 3 GeV/c to 8 GeV/c, with the kaon rate about one order of magnitude lower than the rate of pions and protons. The adopted solution comprises aerogel radiator and composite mirrors in a novel hybrid optics design, where either direct or reflected light could be imaged in a high-packed and high-segmented photon detector. The first RICH module was assembled during the second half of 2017 and installed at the beginning of January 2018, in time for the start of the experiment. The second RICH module, planned with the goal to be ready for the beginning of the operation with polarized targets, has been timely built despite the complications caused by the pandemic crisis and successfully installed in June 2022. Finally, the detector performance is here discussed with emphasis on the operation and stability during the data-taking, calibration and alignment procedures, reconstruction and pattern recognition algorithms, and particle identification.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2022

Xenon doping of liquid argon in ProtoDUNE single phase

The Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) will be the next generation long-baseline neutrino experiment. The far detector is designed as a complex of four LAr-TPC (Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber) modules with 17 kt of liquid argon each. The development and validation of the first far detector technology is pursued through ProtoDUNE Single Phase (ProtoDUNE-SP), a 770 t LAr-TPC at CERN Neutrino Platform. Crucial in DUNE is the photon detection system that will ensure the trigger of non-beam events — proton decay, supernova neutrino burst and BSM searches — and will improve the timing and calorimetry for neutrino beam events. Doping liquid argon with xenon is a known technique to shift the light emitted by argon (128 nm) to a longer wavelength (178 nm) to ease its detection. The largest xenon doping test ever performed in a LAr-TPC was carried out in ProtoDUNE-SP. From February to May 2020, a gradually increasing amount of xenon was injected to also compensate for the light loss due to air contamination. The response of such a large TPC has been studied using the ProtoDUNE-SP Photon Detection System (PDS) and a dedicated setup installed before the run. With the first it was possible to study the light collection efficiency with respect to the track position, while with the second it was possible to distinguish the xenon light (178 nm) from the LAr light (128 nm). The light shifting mechanism proved to be highly efficient even at small xenon concentrations (<20 ppm in mass) furthermore it allowed recovering the light quenched by pollutants. The light collection improved far from the detection plane, enhancing the photon detector response uniformity along the drift direction and confirming a longer Rayleigh scattering length for 178 nm photons, with respect to 128 nm ones. The charge collection by the TPC was monitored proving that xenon up to 20 ppm does not impact its performance.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Temperature dependent x-ray fluorescence

A method and system for determining temperature are provided. The method comprises using an x-ray source to irradiate a sample of a material with x-rays. Photon fluorescence produced by the sample in response to the x-ray irradiation is detected by a number of photon detectors. Based on the detected fluorescence a temperature of the sample is determined according to a predetermined relationship between photon fluorescence and temperature for the material.

Gabet Hoffmeister, Kathryn N.↗
DOE OSTI2025

Sub-2 Kelvin Characterization of Nitrogen-Vacancy Centers in Silicon Carbide Nanopillars

The development of efficient quantum communication technologies depends on the innovation in multiple layers of its implementation, a challenge we address from the fundamental properties of the physical system at the nanoscale to the instrumentation level at the macroscale. We select a promising near-infrared quantum emitter, the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in 4H-SiC, and integrate it, at an ensemble level, with nanopillar structures that enhance photon collection efficiency into an objective lens. Moreover, changes in collection efficiency in pillars compared to bulk can serve as indicators of color center orientation in the lattice. To characterize NV center properties at the unprecedented sub-2 K temperatures, we incorporate compatible superconducting nanowire single photon detectors inside the chamber of an optical cryostat and create the ICECAP, the Integrated Cryogenic system for Emission, Collection And Photon detection. ICECAP measurements show no significant line-width broadening of NV ensemble emission and up to 14-fold enhancement in collected emission. With additional filtering, we measure emitter lifetimes of NV centers in a basal ( hk ) and axial ( kk ) orientation, unveiling their cryogenic values of 2.2 and 2.8 ns.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Evaluation of the absolute single-photon detection efficiency of HRPPD

Pixelated High Rate Picosecond Photon Detectors (HRPPDs) by Incom Inc. are promising photosensors for use in Ring Imaging CHerenkov (RICH) detectors, where a high gain, sub-mm position resolution and sub-100ps timing resolution are required in a single photon mode. Quantum Efficiency (QE) has been measured for the first batch of EIC HRPPDs both by Incom and EIC research groups at Jefferson Lab and Brookhaven Lab, with peak values at ∼365 nm typically exceeding 30%. Furthermore, in this study, we present a first direct measurement of Photon Detection Efficiency being equal to (17.1 ± 0.1 [stat] ± 0.3 [sys])% at 398.6 nm, for a pixel near the center of HRPPD, in a photoelectron pulse counting mode using a picosecond diode laser. HRPPD QE at the same spot and at the same wavelength was evaluated to be (24.4 ± 0.1 [stat] ± 0.3 [sys])%, leading to a Collection Efficiency estimate of (70.3 ± 1.6)%, which is consistent with the expectations.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗